Performance and operations

[turboplanner]

For those of you who suggested we should do this – here we go…….

 

The Joy of Flight

 

The joy of flight is actually landing safely again.

 

If you believe it means jumping into an aircraft, lighting up the engine, and disregarding navigation, preparation and restrictive rules, look down next time you’re flying.

 

Take a look at the straight furrows which indicate that the wheat farmer probably puts more skill into driving that tractor dead straight, to cover the maximum distance in the shortest time, than you do.

 

And he doesn’t drop out of the sky if he runs out of fuel, he doesn’t have a problem if it gets dark, and the exhaust smoke just gets a bit blacker if he gets the gearing or load wrong.

 

PERFORMANCE AND OPERATIONS

 

A surprising amount of stories surface on this forum where a hair raising event occurred, which could have been prevented by a good knowledge of Performance and Operations. This has been a big killer area through the years

 

During early training, and operations in the Training Area, the dynamics are known, particularly to the instructor.

 

Once you start to travel, new challenges emerge; fuel seems to be disappearing faster than you thought, you enjoyed the BBQ, but now it seems to be getting dark much faster than you anticipated, and you decide to get the aircraft to a mechanic for an engine check after you just cleared the fence on the last take off, and why the hell after all those perfect landings did this one bounce.

 

This is the area of Performance and Operations and you might be surprised to find that most of these problems can be avoided before you even leave the ground.

 

DISCLAIMER

 

This information is provided to show people new to flying, and some old hands who grew up through the AUF days where they taught themselves to fly that there are tools which can be used to make a flight safer before it even gets off the ground.

 

Many of the examples will be loaded with fictitious detail just to show how things work, and some of the things discussed may not be applicable to recreational flying aircraft, so it cannot be used as a manual for real time flying.

 

Instead, if you can see the benefits to safety of considering Performance and Operations before every flight, and you already have a pilot certificate, then this should get you interested in buying the full manuals or doing a course, and if you are learning to fly you need to use the correct P&O Syllabus and Text books.

 

The same applies to the comments posted on this thread – we want to highlight and discuss the subject rather than teach it. Where you find a mistake, please post a correction, and if you have a favourite method which is better, post it.

 

Before we get down to planning the first flight, we need some common terms and definitions:

 

 

FLIGHT MANUAL

 

Mandatory equipment for flight, contains operational limitations including:

 

· Performance

 

· Aircraft Loading

 

· Take Off and Landing Charts and limitations

 

SPEEDS

 

It appears at some stage that a group of flyers became bored speaking English and the new language Triple Acronym became the rage in aviation.

 

VNE

 

Never Exceed Speed, above which the wings fall off, sometimes in a matter of seconds, and you are in it big time. When the needle starts to get here, take action immediately

 

VNO

 

Max Normal Operations

 

VFE

 

Max Flap Extension speed. Part of your routine after turning Base should be to consciously allow the aircraft to slow up.

 

VSI

 

Stalling speed, minimum steady flight status

 

VSO

 

Stalling speed, minimum steady flight status with full flap

 

Risk Management:

 

If someone tells you his VSO is 42 kts and that’s what he lands at to prevent float, ask your instructor to take over and demonstrate speed fluctuation on short final on a rough day while you watch the air speed indicator.

 

 

If you approach the runway at VSO, you have no margin to cope with a wind variation, turbulence from trees etc. You might do it for months, but inevitably your airspeed will drop five or ten knots unexpectedly and you’ll drop with it – just look in the RAA magazine and nearly every month there’s an undercarriage collapse. That’s the reason the manufacturer and the flying schools set an approach speed which seems well above VSO.

 

TURBULENCE PENETRATION SPEED

 

This is the speed above stall speed and below VNO where, if you hit turbulence, the aircraft will stall its way out of trouble. Someone might like to expand on this by starting a “Turbulence Penetration” thread.

 

CATEGORY

 

Normal

 

(Non aerobatic) allows stalls and turns up to 60 degrees angle of bank (AOB)

 

Maximum 2.5 positive G’s, 1 negative G, OR lesser aircraft specification

 

Utility

 

Limited aerobatics, stalls, spins, (Spins sometimes limited), turns over 60 deg AOB

 

Maximum 4.4 positive G’s, 1.76 negative G’s OR lesser aircraft specification

 

Semi Aerobatic

 

Approved for certain aerobatics

 

Maximum 4.4 positive G’s, 1.8 negative G’s OR lesser aircraft specification

 

Fully Aerobatic

 

Maximum 6 positive G’s, 3 negative G’s

 

Risk Management:

 

Looping, spinning a Normal category aircraft is likely to produce an airframe weakness, which often leaves you unscathed but kills the next pilot. Recreational Aviation seems to involve more break ups in flight than other categories. Although you may think you can prevent stress, an unexpected gust or incorrect recovery can send you into the ground.

 

60 degrees AOB performed correctly will produce about 2 positive G’s, and this is a good yardstick to observe and put away for reference (after you’ve been taught to do it – I slid into a spiral dive the first time according to my instructor.)

 

Recreational Aircraft specifications sometimes only quote the test figures, which just mean that under controlled circumstances (such as bags of cement) the wing didn’t break on that particular aircraft. It’s the Rated figures which include the safety merging to allow a 60 deg AOB and wind gusts, and some extra back elevator error.

 

FUEL RESERVE

 

The legal minimum for private flights is 45 minutes of useable fuel.

 

Risk Management:

 

Statistics over many years show that this amount takes care of most flight delays due to head winds, getting lost, can’t land at destination etc.

 

Many Recreational Aircraft specifications show range to dry tanks, so beware of this.

 

REFUELLING PRECAUTIONS

 

Prior to refueling – Aircraft switches off, aircraft bonded to tanker/pump/drums and earthed, no smoking or naked flames within 15 metres, “No smoking” signs displayed, fire extinguisher handy, check grade of fuel by colour.

 

Static electricity is a hazard with aircraft, and you have more to lose. Murphy’s Law says the mate that sidles up with a cigarette dangling is not going to pay the replacement cost of your aircraft.

 

After Refueling – check for water and sediment, check fuel tank for water and sediment, use water detecting paste on stick – if colour changes, water is present.

 

We don’t do this with our cars, but there are several service station fires every year through static electricity, and plenty of contaminated fuel incidents where the car just rolls to stop – you may be at 50 feet just after take off.

 

Risk Management:

 

Check drum markings and fuel for colour

 

Check validity period

 

Check for water sediment in the drum

 

Lay chamois inside funnel – if water droplets block just one jet, the other cylinders can overheat and seize

 

RESPONSIBILITY OF PILOT IN COMMAND

 

 

1

 

Check the Maintenance Release

 

2

 

Carry out Daily Inspection

 

3

 

Check Flight Manual

 

4

 

Check mandatory instruments serviceable – Airspeed Indicator, Turn and Balance, Altimeter, Compass, Clock, Engine instruments, Tacho

 

5

 

Check the aircraft is within weight limitations

 

6

 

Calculate the Centre of Gravity

 

7

 

Check Runway Length required

 

(Note that these are GA requirements)

 

We’ll cover how to calculate Items 5,6,7 later.

 

Risk Management:

 

If you don’t have a working compass – even a $2.00 one, how are you going to get your bearings when hit by a rain storm – only fly in good weather? – what happens when the unexpected change occurs – for example you fly out to the coast and the afternoon dump occurs – something you’ve never experienced.

 

MAXIMUM RANGE

 

Fly at best Lift/drag ratio - 4 degrees AOA (Angle of attack)

 

MAXIMUM ENDURANCE

 

Fly at minimum power to maintain level flight, low altitude

 

LANDING DISTANCE

 

50 feet above runway to full stop

 

TAKE OFF DISTANCE

 

Start roll to 50 feet

 

TOTAL FUEL

 

Total of Useable and Unuseable

 

USEABLE FUEL

 

Every fuel tank has an area where the fuel pickup just doesn’t reach, and this volume is known as Unuseable with the balance known as Useable.

 

For example the Piper Cherokee has 190 litre tank, but only 181 litres Useable.

 

So we disregard the fuel tank sizes quoted by eager recreational aircraft salesmen, obtain the useable fuel figure, and use that for flight planning, because the only time we’ll ever see the unuseable fuel is when the tank is dismantled.

 

The number of fuel exhaustions which have been occurring in Recreational Aircraft indicates that we have to make more of an effort to get an accurate Useable Fuel figure, and an accurate fuel level at any particular time. No self respecting GA pilot relies on his fuel gauges for planning and nor should we, so the first step is to establish a method of measuring the height from the bottom of the useable fuel level to the realistic top level.

 

Where recreational aircraft have wing tanks with very small height, the error due to parking on a slope can be too big for planning purposes, and frequently dipsticks read quite differently to the gauges and both are way out compared to actual. Calibrating your tanks and developing an accurate way to measure fuel at en route stops is a good subject for its own thread.

 

ALL UP WEIGHT

 

Includes the weight of the aircraft, Pilot, Passenger(s), Baggage, fuel, and is found in the flight manual

 

EMPTY WEIGHT

 

Includes the weight of the empty aircraft, unuseable fuel, and oil

 

To decide whether to make a specific flight, the Pilot has control over how much he adds above empty weight. After an emergency landing on a golf course, this exercise is of more interest to him.

 

FUEL WEIGHT

 

Petrol is calculated on a Specific Gravity of 0.71 (0.71 kg per litre)

 

PASSENGER WEIGHT

 

Most people remember their first solo by the way it seemed the aircraft was rising vertically – that’s a difference of about 80kg in people mass, and the smaller the aircraft is, the more this is an issue.

 

This will affect other calculations, so it pays to make an accurate estimate for a short flight and get the passenger(s) to weigh themselves for a long trip, rather than find that day after day every take off is soggy.

 

MAXIMUM TAKE OFF WEIGHT (MTOW), MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT

 

This is found in the Flight Manual, however:

 

The PIC (Pilot in Command) may reduce this for short strips, temperature, wind component, altitude, gradient, where the additional runway length required for take off is not available, or pavement strength.

 

Risk Management:

 

Knowing what amount of weight to reduce to get out in prevailing conditions is an important tool we can use.

 

A percentage of broken undercarriage incidents in the RAA Magazine reports are likely to be due to landing at a weight above the maximum. The bigger the aircraft, the longer the fuel burn needed to reduce weight for landing, so a good practice is to plan a long first leg with few distractions which could contribute to a precautionary or forced landing.

 

 

EOL

 

Effective Operational Length of runway including stopway, and allowance for obstacle clearance on approach or take off.

 

CORRECTED EOL

 

The EOL corrected for slope, surface, approaches.

 

This is the one used for all calculations

 

MAXIMUM STATION LOAD

 

For Example – baggage locker structural limitation on airframe to withstand G forces for the Category.

 

Cargo, instrument panels and people have all departed their positions in incidents where excess G force was applied by mistake.

 

WEIGHT CALCULATION RULES OF THUMB

 

Seat removal – deduct 4 kg if removed (better to weigh it)

 

Cargo in Seating area – Station load 85 kg in lieu of seat

 

DATUM

 

A line used as an easy reference point, such as a vertical straight edge

 

COG

 

Centre of Gravity

 

Quoted by the manufacturer as mm aft of the Datum

 

STATION

 

Any point on the aircraft measured in mm from the Datum

 

+ VE = aft of Datum

 

- VE = forward of Datum

 

To be continued… not too much more before we can start with the exercises.

 

 

[Guest Maj Millard]

Turboplanner, all good stuff of course, but seemingly more directed toward the GA end of things, in some instances. For example: 'Check the maintenance release', we certainly don't need those to be the next "mandatory requirement" from CASA. MR's haven't really done a hell of a lot in way of actual flight safety for GA. They have of course replaced the blackboard on the hangar wall, where a previous pilot may have written " Joe, make sure you check oil before next flight"...which of course he will do anyway if he is any sort of a pilot.

 

They have also of course become a "legal document" by CASA, which can very quickly put you, as pilot, and for that matter any mechanic, quite firmly in jail after not signing in the appropriate place, either intentionally, or by honest slip of mind. Remember we all occasionally forget to close a flightwatch every now and then. And no doubt CASA is aware that we will forget to make an MR entry or sign off now and then also. It's an automatic infringement of some regulation somewhere, and will end up costing you a considerable amount of good fuel money to boot.

 

Most pilots flying on the lighter side, do so consciously for a reason. And one of those reasons is to keep it simple, inexpensive, and without unnecessary bullXXXX. Most have made that conscious choice over the restrictive style of CASA controlled GA, and many RAA pilots now are now quite happy to be ex-GA pilots.

 

Don't however let the likes of me disuade you from providing all that good information, as it should be available to those new in our sport, and for anyone else who may require it, and like many good books on the subject, it will always be there for reference later.

 

If by some chance I have read the whole thing the wrong way, and you are simply just trying to start an educational and informative post, than of course I, and I'm sure many others will be happy to contribute to that.........................................

 

 

[Guest mike_perth]

Mmmm I think if I was flying an aircraft that wasn't mine Id want to see some sort of maintenance release it need not be a CASA approved version but I would sure like to know when it was last serviced flown etc etc so I dont think a MR of some description is a bad or negative thing - I do agree though with the "issues" CASA can create.

 

Mike

 

 

[turboplanner]

If by some chance I have read the whole thing the wrong way, and you are simply just trying to start an educational and informative post, than of course I, and I'm sure many others will be happy to contribute to that.........................................

Yes, it's in the disclaimer - this is just for the guys who aren't aware that you can prevent some awkward moments by doing some calculations.

 

It's based on GA because there's more information there, and I did point out that it is not for real life flying and students need to follow the RAA or GA syllabus requirements, not these very rough examples. We do have GA pilots who fly just for fun and regularly post here.

 

"DISCLAIMER

 

This information is provided to show people new to flying, and some old hands who grew up through the AUF days where they taught themselves to fly that there are tools which can be used to make a flight safer before it even gets off the ground."

 

 

[pudestcon]

Great thread

 

Great idea for a thread Turboplanner,

 

I will be following this one with interest as I'm an old, (well not that old) low time pilot who wants to get a lot older whilst increasing those hours in the air! One of the ways to do this is to gain knowledge through threads such as this and good robust discussion. The disclaimer is good and I take it to mean "For discussion purposes only".

 

Great stuff.

 

Pud

 

 

[skeptic36]

Mmmm I think if I was flying an aircraft that wasn't mine Id want to see some sort of maintenance release it need not be a CASA approved version but I would sure like to know when it was last serviced flown etc etc so I dont think a MR of some description is a bad or negative thing - I do agree though with the "issues" CASA can create.Mike

I have no experience flying other peoples aircraft, but I would have thought there would be a maintenance log for every aircraft where a pilot can check any past maintenance issues and all servicing is up to date.

 

I know mine has one :thumb_up:

 

Regards Bill

 

 

[facthunter]

Discussion.

 

Discussion should be encouraged. I hope you have a bit of spare time turbo. Nev..

 

 

[farri]

All good information Turbo and accurate information,no matter where it comes from,can only help.

 

The point I wish to stress is that anyone interested in learning to fly or already flying under the RAA banner, use the RAA syllabus and operations manual requirements,it`s all there.

 

Cheers,

 

Frank.

 

 

[turboplanner]

Yes, I've pointed that out Frank, but this all started over some incidents where there didn't seem to be enough basic information, so we'll see what happens when we get past the definitions and into the exercises.

 

 

[Yenn]

I get the feeling that this forum is going to be a long lasting one with plenty of interest and I am looking forward to the rest of it.

 

 

[BLA82]

I get the feeling that this forum is going to be a long lasting one with plenty of interest and I am looking forward to the rest of it.

I agree Ian,

 

I am looking forward to reading this thread Turbo. Well Done:thumb_up::thumb_up:

 

 

[turboplanner]

Thanks, I've just hit a heavy workload, so there'll be a slight delay, but its coming.

 

 

[turboplanner]

Chapter 2

 

Here we go with something you can get your teeth into.

 

WX011.doc

 

WX011.doc

 

WX011.doc

[Barefootpilot]

Nice thread with some good info in there. Just a quick correction though Fuel resereves are not mandatory for private flights they are recommened only. In saying that if you run out because you don't carry any reserves you will look very foolish!

 

As they say the three most useless things in aviation are runway behind you, the fuel in the bowzer and the air above you!

 

Adam.

 

 

[turboplanner]

Adam, we have GA, RAA, HGFA visiting this site , and the 45 minutes is mandatory for GA, and I'm trying to give you the safest options. As we go on, you'll see there are risk management techniques you can use in all phases of the flight, and I'm sure some people will feel a cold chill go up and down their spine as they realise how close to the razor's edge they fly.

 

Running out of fuel is a regular ATSB accident/fatality feature - funny if it happens over a flat paddock, or golf course, but a different story over scrub.

 

Some people may argue the 45 minutes reserve isn't so important if you are just doing circuits, but what happens if someone else cracks up and police etc block your runway etc etc.?

 

 

[Barefootpilot]

Turbo I agree with you 100% that the reserves make perfect sense. In GA reserves are not mandatory for private ops, they are part of a CAAP 234 which is only an advisory and not a regulation. Once an operation becomes Commercial the reserves become dicated by the operations manual of that company.

 

http://www.casa.gov.au/wcmswr/_assets/main/download/caaps/ops/234_1.pdf

 

Adam.

 

 

[Guest brentc]

Hard to believe but that correct from my understanding:

 

Up until 1991, the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) stipulated that an aircraft

 

 

 

 

 



must contain 45 minutes of fixed fuel reserves for Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

 

 

 

 

 



operations, plus an additional 15 per cent variable reserve for Instrument Flight Rules

 

 

 

 

 



(IFR) operations. After this time, Civil Aviation Regulation (CAR) 234 stipulated that

 

 

 

 

 



the pilot in command and the operator of the aircraft were responsible to ensure that

 

 

 

 

 



the aircraft carried sufficient fuel to enable the proposed flight to be undertaken in

 

 

 

 

 



safety. In March of 1991, CASA issued the Civil Aviation Advisory Publication (CAAP)

 

 

 

 

 



234-1(0), ‘Guidelines for aircraft fuel requirements’ to supplement CAR 234. The CAAP

 

 

 

 

 



outlined some of the issues to consider when calculating fuel requirements; the

 

 

 

 

 



amount of fuel which should be carried under various circumstances; and

 

 

 

 

 



contingencies to be considered when calculating fuel requirements.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[jcamp]

Hope you guys have good QC's

 

CAR 234

 

" (1) The pilot in command of an aircraft must not commence a flight within Australian territory, or to or from Australian territory, if he or she has not taken reasonable steps to ensure that the aircraft carries sufficient fuel and oil to enable the proposed flight to be undertaken in safety.

 

Penalty: 50 penalty units.

 

<snip>

 

(3) For the purposes of these regulations, in determining whether fuel and oil carried on an aircraft in respect of a particular flight was sufficient within the meaning of subregulations (1) and (2), a court must, in addition to any other matters, take into account the following matters:

 

<snip>

 

(d) any guidelines issued from time to time by CASA for the purposes of this regulation.

 

(4) An offence against subregulation (1) or (2) is an offence of strict liability."

 

CAAP 234 "Guidelines for Aircraft Fuel Requirements

 

says Fixed Reserve - Piston Engine VFR and IFR - 45 minutes

 

Seems to be the same thing as the old CAR 234 45 minutes just in a more convoluted manner

 

 

[Guest Decca]

Thanks jcamp. I just spent most of the night writing this, so I'm not going to scratch it now. It supplements yours anyway.

 

CAAP 234-1(1) November 2006 needs to read in full, including all notations in the side columns, so there is no risk of mis-interpretation.

 

Having said that I’m not going to rewrite the whole damn thing for you, but here’s some it:

 

5.1 Where it has been determined that an alternate aerodrome to the destination AD is not necessary, the amount of fuel on board an aircraft at any particular point in the flight should be an amount that is sufficient:

 

(a) to…….and

 

(b) to…….and

 

© to…….and

 

(d) to……and

 

(e) to provide the fixed fuel reserve that is specified in Table 2 of this CAAP.

 

 

Table 2 states for VFR & IFR piston engine aircraft the fixed reserve shall be 45 mins.

 

Reference to holders of Air Operator’s Certificates states a requirement from CAR’s (1988) to include specific instructions in operations manuals for the computation of fuel quantity to be carried on each route. This means the AOC holders are responsible for ensuring that the minimum requirements are met, no less.

 

 

Adam I can only see a reference to private & aerial work & NIL (fuel reserve) in Table 1, Variable fuel reserve.

 

 

“This publication is only advisory but it gives a CASA preferred method for complying with the CAR’s 1988. It is not the only method, but experience has shown that if you follow this method you will comply with the CAR’s.” I suspect they may be referring to the VFR guide - Fuel requirements & fuel planning from p104 on.

 

In addition (and this is a must read) John Brandon’s tutorial on your operations manual cd: 3.2 FUEL PLANNING refers personal discretion, but a requirement for a minimum 30mins fuel as a fixed reserve on a perfect day. That is have 30mins up your sleeve at destination.

 

Regards, Decca

 

 

[Barefootpilot]

Jcamp and Decca,

 

The CAAPs are purely and advisory publication (Cival Aviation advisory publication CAAPs) so no enforcment action can be taken against you for not following them BUT you would then have to explain why you did not follow standard industry advise if you do run out of fuel, which may be very difficult.

 

Jcamp car 234 says that you must be able to undertake the flight in safety - for one person that may mean they need an hours fuel left in the tank but for someone else going for a 10 min flight 20 minutes fuel left in the tank may be considered safe - I'm not here to argue what is safe I am just pointing out the wording.

 

Decca in you quote it says “This publication is only advisory but it gives a CASA preferred method for complying with the CAR’s 1988. It is not the only method, but experience has shown that if you follow this method you will comply with the CAR’s.”

 

Again only an advisory - not enforceable. Your reference to the VFR guide again is only a guide of what they would recommend you carry but not a requirement.

 

If its not a CAR than it is not a requirment and is not enforceable.

 

I do need to point out that I am not saying we shouldn't carry fuel reserves! That would be just plain stupid! It makes perfect sense to follow Casa's advise and it will probably save your a**e one day!

 

Adam

 

 

[turboplanner]

OK, firstly let me reiterate that this material is just to give beginners an idea of basic theory. This and the next chapter took a lot of time, and it's not going to be feasible to research all the CASA/RAA documents, so that's why you are recommended to use your correct RAA/GA training material where you can interpret for your path, either RAA or GA.

 

I missed the changes on this one, which I'm finding is a continuous hazard, having to unlearn things I knew 20 years ago and learn new procedures, but that's no excuse.

 

I think BRENTC nailed the sequence and the 45 minutes is a casualty of the long process of Governments to dismantle any prescriptive legislation in favour of codes or "advisories" as a public liability.

 

Nevertheless the current advice has bite because in an accident where someone is injured or killed you will have to demonstrate that you took due care, and the first thing the prosecution will ask is whether you followed this safety advice from the regulator.

 

For the purposes of this theoretical exercise, we will use 45 minutes as a niminal reserve fuel, which ill giv us time to get to an alternate in case of trouble, or wander round if we get lost, which we are going to do.

 

 

[Yenn]

Yes Turbo I know how you feel. It seems that the only thing which doesn't change is the constant change. I have no idea what the current rules are in a llot of cases as they keep changing. In fact some of them have been changed before they became rules.

 

 

[turboplanner]

Anyone got any answers yet?

 

The next Chapter involves calculating weight distribution, so you'll need to be able to do this Chapter's calculations in order to have a chance of getting the weight distribution calculations correct.

 

 

[Guest brentc]

MR's haven't really done a hell of a lot in way of actual flight safety for GA.

I've just been re-reading this and I strongly disagree with this statement!

 

How else does an aircraft hirer report defects in the aircraft? In a flying school or private hire situation the MR is the fundamental document that keeps the aircraft flying safely and legally. I shudder to think what type of informal system would exist without them!

 

 

[jcamp]

Again only an advisory - not enforceable. Your reference to the VFR guide again is only a guide of what they would recommend you carry but not a requirement.

If its not a CAR than it is not a requirment and is not enforceable.

 

Adam

The CAR says "a court must, in addition to any other matters, take into account the following matters:

 

<snip>

 

(d) any guidelines issued from time to time by CASA for the purposes of this regulation."

 

My reading of that (and that of a legal mate I asked in a social situation) is that CAAP 234 should be regarded as enforcable and not only in the post accident senario. Arguments should be left those who can afford QC's from the Magistrates court to the High court.