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5.4.1 Communications in the vicinity of airfields in Class G airspace Common traffic advisory frequencies If a public-use non-controlled* aerodrome has a reasonable number of daily movements Airservices Australia assigns a discrete VHF frequency to that site, which all aircraft should (not must, see AIP ENR 1.1 para 21.1.14.1) monitor when operating in the vicinity of that airfield. This discrete frequency is known as the common traffic advisory frequency or CTAF (see-taff) and is shown in the ERSA entry for that location and is also depicted on the VNC, VTC and ERC-L aeronautical charts – next to the airfield ID as 'CTAF frequency'; e.g. 'CTAF 118.6'. However, if an airfield or a private airstrip is depicted on the VNC, VTC, ERC-L or WAC aeronautical charts, without a discrete CTAF being shown, then the default 'Multicom' frequency of 126.7 MHz should be used. The larger 'broadcast areas' are defined airspace volumes in Class G airspace for which a discrete CTAF has been allocated. (That discrete CTAF could be 126.7 MHz.) All operations, including those at aerodromes (charted or uncharted) and any landing ground, within this area shall use that CTAF as the broadcast frequency. See AIP Book ENR 1.4 section 3.2. Broadcast area lateral boundaries are shown on the aeronautical charts with a note stating "For operations in this area SFC – (altitude) use CTAF (frequency)". The area around the Avalon, Vic control zone is an example. The lateral and vertical limits are defined on the charts; the default vertical limit is 5000 feet amsl. In all other cases the flight information area frequency should be used at non-controlled aerodromes or landing grounds. *Note: the Civil Aviation Regulations define and use the term 'non-controlled aerodrome', however Airservices Australia's AIP book has been erroneously using the USA term 'non-towered aerodrome' for some time (the term is or was also used in some advisory publications) but, as the 'non-towered aerodrome' term is not yet supported by legislation, all references were deleted from AIP or replaced by 'non-controlled aerodrome' effective 21 August 2014. CARs 166, 166A, 166B, 166C, 166D and 166E establish the regulatory environment for operations at non-controlled aerodromes. If an aerodrome air traffic control tower does not maintain a 24-hour 7-day service CAR 166D allows CASA to classify any of those aerodromes as a designated non-controlled aerodrome during the periods when the control tower is unmanned. The 'designated' term prescribes mandatory carriage and use of radio on the airfield frequency. CAR 166C defines the responsibilities and mandatory actions for broadcasting on VHF radio when operating in the vicinity of a non-controlled aerodrome. When planning a flight into an airfield not listed in ERSA, it is advisable to check the frequency being used with the airfield owner/operator — there are unlisted landing areas where a dedicated airfield frequency, other than the multicom 126.7 MHz, may still exist but is not shown on the aeronautical charts; see specific frequencies. This particularly applies to airfields supporting glider operations. CTAFs are usually not monitored by Air Traffic Services. An aircraft is 'in the vicinity' of a non-controlled aerodrome if it is within a horizontal distance of 10 nautical miles from that aerodrome and at a height above the aerodrome that could result in conflict with operations at the aerodrome. The height dimension of the aerodrome's airspace is a rather nebulous concept — few light aircraft pilots would be familiar with the potential flight path profiles of fast-moving RPT aircraft conducting their normal 'straight-in' or 'circling' approaches or their climb-out; so the upper and lower 'vicinity' limits (at various distances from the airfield with allowance for terrain elevation) are difficult to judge. Perhaps 5000 feet amsl could be regarded as the height limit of the airspace at most CTAF aerodromes – but aerodrome elevation must be taken into account. The 10 nm radius of the 'vicinity' encloses more than 1000 square kilometres of territory which is likely to contain other airfields, private airstrips (and paddocks) used for recreational operations and agricultural work, any of which may, or may not, appear in ERSA or other airfield guides. When aerodromes are in close proximity they are usually allocated the same CTAF, but that is not always so and only the pilot can judge the best time to make the appropriate frequency changes when operating in the vicinity of more than one landing area. CAR 166E requires that, if the aerodrome listing shown in ERSA FAC describes the airfield as 'CERT' or 'REG' or 'MIL' or is a 'designated non-controlled aerodrome'*, then the carriage and use of VHF radio — confirmed to be functioning on the designated frequency — is mandatory for all aircraft operating in the vicinity and, of course, the pilot of an RA-Aus aircraft must hold a RA-Aus radio operator endorsement. There are about 300 such civilian certified or registered airfields in Australia, all of which usually have scheduled regional RPT movements. I have compiled a listing in text file format of those CASR Part 139 certified aerodromes [184] and registered aerodromes [120] but it will not reflect current status, so check ERSA. Carriage of VHF radio is usually not mandatory within the vicinity of the other non-controlled airfields — unless a temporary notam is current — though highly recommended. But all radio-equipped (hand-held or fixed installation) aircraft must maintain a listening watch and must be prepared to broadcast on the CTAF or the Multicom frequency 126.7 MHz. *Note: prior to about 2006 'designated non-controlled aerodromes' were commonly known as 'CTAF(R)s'; in the 1990s they were 'MBZs' – mandatory broadcast zones. CASA have produced two advisory publications to support CTAF procedures and provide guidance on a code of conduct to allow greater flexibility for pilots when flying at, or in the vicinity of, non-controlled aerodromes. These Civil Aviation Advisory Publications (available on this website) are: CAAP 166-1 'Operations in the vicinity of non-controlled aerodromes' (August 2014) and CAAP 166-2 'Pilots responsibility for collision avoidance in the vicinity of non-controlled aerodromes using 'see and avoid' (December 2013). Note that the 'ultralight' term as used in the CAAPs when recommending a 500 feet circuit height, refers only to those minimum aircraft which have a normal cruising speed below 55 knots, or thereabouts. CASA has produced an online interactive learning tool titled 'Operations at, or in the vicinity of, non-towered (i.e. non-controlled) aerodromes' which is now available at CASA online learning. About 100 Australian aerodromes are equipped with an Aerodrome Frequency Response Unit [AFRU] or 'bleepback' — a device that transmits an automatic aural response when a pilot transmits on the CTAF, thus confirming that the pilot is on the correct airfield frequency. AFRU features are explained in AIP GEN 3.4 sub-section 3.4. Accessing AIP Book and ERSA Airservices Australia publishes online versions of the AIP Book, SUPS, AICs and ERSA at www.airservicesaustralia.com/publications/aip.asp (click the 'I agree' button to gain entry). To find a particular section of AIP or ERSA you have to click through a number of index pages. The section/subsection/paragraph numbering system was designed for a readily amendable looseleaf print document, so you may find it a little confusing as an online document. Unicom services Any Unicom (universal communications) service that exists would be a private non-ATS aeronautical station licensed by ACMA that may provide — on pilot request — basic wind, weather and perhaps some traffic advisory information in plain language, but certainly not a traffic separation service. Unicom may be provided by the aerodrome operator, the local refueller or an airline representative during RPT operational periods. Any Unicom facility and call-sign would be indicated in ERSA. Refer to AIP GEN 3.4 sub-section 3.3. The advantage of Unicom to recreational pilots may be that the service (if it operates on the CTAF) provides some additional information and thereby confirmation of the correct frequency selection and operation of the radio. Unicom communications always take second place to pilot-to-pilot communications on the CTAF. Certified air/ground radio services [CA/GRS] In 2011 there remained just one non-towered aerodrome operator (Ayers Rock) providing a 'certified' ground-to-air radio information service on the CTAF to all aircraft operating in the vicinity. This service is usually provided where, and when, there is significant RPT traffic. They are not an Airservices Australia sponsored service but the radio operators 'have been certified to meet a CASA standard of communication technique and aviation knowledge appropriate to the services being provided.' For recreational aviation the service is similar to a Unicom service but the CA/GRS operator will most likely provide better traffic information. For more details read AIP GEN 3.4 section 3.2. Operating times, call signs and any special procedures will be shown in the aerodrome ERSA entry. 5.4.2 Radio procedures at non-controlled airfields Communication requirements when operating in the vicinity of a non-controlled aerodrome are defined in AIP Book ENR 1.1 section 21 table 'Summary of broadcasts - all aircraft at non-controlled aerodromes'. The following seven broadcasts are 'recommended', meaning that the operational decisions regarding their use are then properly left to the pilot. The pilot is expected to conduct operations in an airmanlike manner in accordance with the existing environment and traffic conditions. There may be requirements detailed in the ERSA entry for a particular airfield that vary from the standards detailed below. Some temporary variation in the following procedures may also be stipulated, via NOTAM or AIP supplement, for special events; e.g. the annual Birdsville Race meeting or the RA-Aus Easter weekend national fly-in at Temora. Arrival and transit advisory broadcasts VFR aircraft reaching the vicinity of an aerodrome within Class G airspace, and intending to land, must monitor the designated airfield frequency (otherwise the multicom frequency) and should make these broadcasts on that frequency: an inbound broadcast — by 10 nautical miles from the airfield a joining circuit broadcast immediately before joining the circuit if making a straight-in approach, broadcast on final approach not less than 3 nm from the threshold if joining on base leg, broadcast joining base leg prior to joining on base. (Note: straight-in approaches and joining the circuit on the base leg, though acceptable, are not recommended procedures.) If intending to operate in the vicinity of an aerodrome, rather than land, the aircraft must monitor the appropriate frequency and broadcast: (a) if in transit, an overflying report — by 10 nm from the airfield. (b) if operating from a private airstrip less than 10 nm from the aerodrome, an intentions report once airborne. Regulations recommend a transit report if the flight path passes in the airfield vicinity at a height that 'could result in conflict with operations'. A high-performance aircraft departing from an airfield could attain 5000 feet agl before reaching the 10 nm boundary so caution would dictate a transit report advisable even if cruising altitude is above 5000 feet agl — and an airfield should not be overflown at any height less than 3000 feet agl. If you don't hear or see any other traffic in the area do not assume there is none and neglect to make any calls. Departure advisory broadcasts All aircraft operating from a non-towered aerodrome must monitor the airfield CTAF and should make the following broadcasts on that frequency: immediately before, or during, commencing taxiing to the runway, make a taxiing broadcast broadcast immediately before entering runway. Broadcasts within the circuit The AIP no longer defines any mandatory or recommended broadcasts such as 'turning downwind', 'turning base', 'turning final' or 'clear of runway'. Instead CAR 166C states: 'The pilot must make a broadcast ... whenever it is reasonably necessary to do so to avoid a collision, or the risk of a collision, with another aircraft ...' A turning final broadcast should be regarded as mandatory. It is often difficult to see a stationary aircraft, vehicle or even line marking operators on the runway, let alone an aircraft on a straight-in approach. Most mid-air collisions occur on approach where a faster aircraft descends upon the aircraft in front (see 'Further online reading') and collisions do occur on runways after landing. The turning final call does provide a warning at a time when the aircraft turning is most visible. The necessity for a turning base or other circuit call are matters of judgement that depend upon the amount and type of traffic, separation and flow. The more ordered it is the fewer the calls needed. On the other hand, if there are no other aircraft heard or seen in the circuit then there will be minimum chance of frequency interference or frequency congestion — and it will be safer — if every possible call is made. 5.4.3 Prescribed CTAF broadcast formats All VFR broadcasts from an aircraft station in Class G are quite simple, having much the same content presented in much the same sequence: The location Who I'm calling Who I am Where I am What my intentions are The location repeated Expressed in the official manner: Location (The general area, usually an airfield name) Called station/s ID (Who I'm calling) Calling station ID (Who I am; i.e. aircraft type and registration) Calling station position (Where I am, usually in reference to the airfield) Calling station intentions (What my intentions are) Location repeated For a broadcast transmission there is no specific station being called; you are just addressing all those aircraft stations (and possibly ground stations) in the vicinity who are maintaining a listening watch on the CTAF. The called station ID is usually "TRAFFIC" and presumably this is meant to include ground aeronautical stations and aeronautical mobile stations, rather than just aircraft stations. If you are making a broadcast call where you are asking a question and hope for a response then the called station ID would be "ANY STATION" or "ANY TRAFFIC" preceded by the location name. The calling station ID is the aircraft call-sign which, for RA-Aus aircraft, already includes the aircraft type. For a General Aviation aircraft the calling station ID is the three-letter aircraft registration, so the aircraft type must be added; e.g. PIPER WARRIOR/ALPHA YANKEE CHARLIE. In the following example broadcasts the location is 'TANGAMBALANGA' and the aircraft call-sign is 'THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX'. Taxiing call format The taxiing call notifies all aircraft that you are about to taxi to a runway, and particularly alerts any other ground traffic that is taxiing to or from a runway to be vigilant for traffic movements. [location] TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN TAXIING RUNWAY (number) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX TAXIING RUNWAY TWO FIVE TANGAMBALANGA Entering runway call format The 'entering runway' call alerts any traffic in the circuit or clearing the runway that you are about to use the runway for take-off. The call particularly alerts aircraft on base leg or straight-in approach to be prepared to go around in the event that there is a conflict. (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN ENTERING RUNWAY (number) (Intentions or the departure quadrant) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ENTERING RUNWAY TWO FIVE (or ENTERING AND BACKTRACKING RUNWAY TWO FIVE) FOR CIRCUITS or DEPARTING TO THE SOUTH TANGAMBALANGA Aircraft should remain at the runway holding point until all checks are complete and the runway and the approach are seen to be clear — then make the ENTERING RUNWAY broadcast. If there has been a significant delay between the entering runway broadcast and commencement of take-off then a ROLLING call may be helpful to aircraft on the approach. The format would be the same as the entering runway call but with the word ENTERING replaced with ROLLING. If you decide to abandon the take-off after entering the runway then broadcast ABANDONING TAKE-OFF plus your intentions regarding vacating the runway. If you intend taxiing to an exit keep to the left of the runway — just in case! Inbound call format (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN (Position — reported as the distance and the compass quadrant from the aerodrome) (altitude) (Intentions) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ONE TWO MILES NORTH-EAST / TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED INBOUND or INBOUND FOR A STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH RUNWAY TWO FIVE TANGAMBALANGA Straight-in approaches are acceptable but not recommended. If you intend to make a straight-in approach that intention should be included in the initial inbound broadcast. Some aircraft may report their position in terms of magnetic bearing from the airfield or the VOR radial. Such information is officially acceptable but the compass quadrant format is advisable, being readily understood by all and quite sufficient to alert other aircraft. Note that the word 'altitude' does not precede 2500; the figures are unlikely to be confused with anything else. Do not precede the altitude figures with the word 'AT' — which is reserved to specify time. When on descent the altitude might be expressed as 'DESCENDING THROUGH (altitude)'; e.g. 'ONE TWO MILES NORTH-EAST / DESCENDING THROUGH FOUR THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED'. Also note that we have transmitted the location twice, which is always required as there may be several airfields within range on the same frequency, and doubling up the name helps to clarify the transmission. If the airfield name is short, or similar to another airfield within range (say 60 nm), then additional mention of the location may be appropriate; as in the following: BOURKE TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ONE THREE MILES NORTH-EAST BOURKE / TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED INBOUND BOURKE If your groundspeed is low and it will take some time to reach the circuit area it may be advisable to add your estimated time of arrival to the intentions. If so, it is conventional for the time to be expressed in minutes past the hour, in which case the previous call might be: 'INBOUND ESTIMATE BOURKE AT FOUR FIVE'. If you estimate your arrival will be near enough to the hour then the call would be 'INBOUND ESTIMATE BOURKE ON THE HOUR'. Don't forget aviation times are UTC so the minutes in local time do not coincide with the minutes in UTC when the time difference in the area includes a half-hour — Central (Australia) Standard Time, for example. In such instances it may be advisable to append the word 'ZULU' to the time in UTC minutes — or best use the local time and append the term 'LOCAL TIME' to the message; i.e. 'INBOUND ESTIMATE BOURKE ON THE HOUR LOCAL TIME'. Transit call format (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN (Position — reported as the distance and the compass quadrant from the aerodrome) (altitude) (Intentions) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ONE TWO MILES SOUTH TANGAMBALANGA / MAINTAINING THREE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED OVERFLYING TO THE NORTH TANGAMBALANGA The broadcast indicates the intent to maintain 3500 feet while overflying the area on the way north. Joining circuit call format (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN JOINING (position in circuit – upwind, crosswind or downwind) (location) (runway) (Intentions) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX JOINING DOWNWIND RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TANGAMBALANGA It is only necessary to state intentions if you are not intending to land and turn off the runway. If you are intending to do a few circuits first then the transmission is: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX JOINING CROSSWIND RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN FOR CIRCUITS (or 'FOR TOUCH-AND-GO' if you don't intend to turn off the runway) TANGAMBALANGA Final approach report format for straight-in approaches The 'final approach' call must be made at not less than 3 nm from the runway threshold. (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN FINAL APPROACH (runway) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX FINAL APPROACH RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TANGAMBALANGA or TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX FINAL APPROACH RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN BACKTRACKING AFTER LANDING TANGAMBALANGA Clear of runway call format This call that you have turned off the runway particularly helps where a rise in the runway obscures the view of an aircraft preparing to take-off. (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN CLEAR OF RUNWAY (runway number) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX CLEAR OF RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TANGAMBALANGA Turning downwind call format Although not mentioned in AIP the following 'in-circuit' broadcasts may be made if the circuit traffic situation warrants use of any of them. A 'turning downwind' call could be made when starting the turn onto the downwind leg — if the circuit was joined crosswind or if the aircraft is doing touch-and-goes. (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN TURNING DOWNWIND (runway) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX TURNING DOWNWIND RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TANGAMBALANGA Turning base call format The 'turning base' call should be made when starting the turn onto base, as it provides a more precise location for sighting and a banked aircraft is more visible. (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN TURNING BASE (runway) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX TURNING BASE RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TANGAMBALANGA If you are doing a right-hand circuit it is advisable to say so in the transmission, for example 'TURNING RIGHT BASE'. Turning final call format The 'turning final' call should be made when starting the turn onto final. (Location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN TURNING FINAL (runway)] (Intention) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX TURNING FINAL RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TOUCH-AND-GO TANGAMBALANGA If you are doing circuits then you should add the intention 'TOUCH-AND-GO'; or if this is the last landing of a session of touch-and-go circuits then "FULL STOP' so that any following aircraft doing circuits-and-bumps can make the allowance for runway separation. Broadcast etiquette There are a few unwritten rules that greatly aid understanding by those maintaining a listening watch on the frequency: First ask yourself; "Is this call really necessary?" Mentally compose your message using aviation English (but no jargon), before operating the press-to-talk switch, thus avoiding a transmission containing 'umms' or 'aahs' or long pauses. Transmit once and transmit succinctly! Listen out for a second or two before transmitting so that you don't broadcast over someone else. Ensure you operate the press-to-talk switch before you start speaking; otherwise you are going to cut off the first word or part of it, probably making the broadcast useless to others. This is particularly so because the first word of the transmission is required to be the location. Speak distinctly and at a normal level (speaking loudly will distort the transmission) and at a normal pace (no-one appreciates a clipped, rapid-fire broadcast from the would-be 'hot-shot' pilot); and don't run the words together. Usually the microphone is designed to be squarely in front of the lips and 1–3 cm from them. Ensure the transmission system is of reasonable quality, properly maintained and operated in accordance with the manual. Avoid using superfluous words like 'IS taxiing', 'IS entering' or 'TRACKING for Holbrook' or 'PLEASE' or 'THANKS'. The term 'tracking' is usually only associated with a VOR radial or magnetic track; e.g. TRACKING ZERO TWO ZERO. Don't use non-aviation English phrasing such as '(call-sign) TURNS base' instead of '(call-sign) TURNING base'. Such phrasing is confusing — particularly to students — and may grate on other listeners; consequently the listener may not absorb the information and the broadcast has no value. Avoid confusion and annoyance! Ensure you are not inadvertently transmitting because of a stuck microphone switch. It is very annoying to others, possibly adding to stress and detracts from airfield safety. It can be extremely embarrassing to yourself, and perhaps costly, if you happen to be transmitting the cockpit conversation. Listen carefully to any message being transmitted so that you fully understand it. If you don't understand a transmission ask for a repeat — AIRCRAFT CALLING SAY AGAIN. And remember your own transmission must not include: profane or obscene language deceptive or false information improper use of another call-sign. And do not attempt to avoid landing fees by sneaking in without using the radio. Such actions are stupid but may be criminally reckless. 5.4.4 Discretionary broadcast formats Although radio calls should be kept to a minimum, there are times when traffic circumstances indicate some extra or discretionary calls would be helpful to all in maintaining safe separation; or when you do something unusual such as a go-around or back-tracking after landing. Discretionary calls may be shorter than standard calls. Going around call format If it is necessary to abort the landing and conduct a go-around, a broadcast may be helpful to others. (location) TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN GOING AROUND (runway number) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX GOING AROUND / RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN TANGAMBALANGA If the go-around was necessitated by something that may affect other aircraft then add information to the broadcast; e.g. GOING AROUND / RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN OBSTRUCTED BY LIVESTOCK Departure call format If, for example, you had been practising touch-and-goes and are now leaving the circuit it may be helpful to other aircraft to inform them of your intentions to depart the circuit. [location] TRAFFIC CALL-SIGN DEPARTING (runway) (turn) (departure quadrant) Location repeated For example: TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX DEPARTING FOR HOLBROOK TANGAMBALANGA There is a possibility that the word 'TO' might, in some circumstances, be confused with the numeral 'TWO' — or the word 'FOR' be confused with the numeral 'FOUR' — so some care is needed when composing a transmission. Requesting information There are occasions when a request for information from other aircraft is appropriate. For example, when approaching an airfield and no traffic has been heard on the airfield frequency but you would like to know what runway is in use — possibly by non-radio aircraft. In this case use the call ANY STATION (location) thus: ANY STATION TANGAMBALANGA THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX REQUEST RUNWAY IN USE TANGAMBALANGA The response from a general aviation aircraft on the ground or in the circuit might be: THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ALPHA YANKEE CHARLIE TANGAMBALANGA RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN IN USE And the acknowledgment: RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX 5.4.5 Communicating with Unicom or CA/GRS stations When inbound to an airfield with a Unicom or CA/GRS service, an information request might take this form (the Unicom call-sign is generally the location plus 'UNICOM'; the CA/GRS call sign will be location plus 'RADIO'): TANGAMBALANGA UNICOM THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ONE FIVE MILES SOUTH-EAST INBOUND FOR LANDING REQUEST WIND AND TRAFFIC INFORMATION TANGAMBALANGA The informal response from the ground operator might be: "THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX — TANGAMBALANGA UNICOM — WIND IS ZERO SIX ZERO AT TEN KNOTS — A WARRIOR IS DOING CIRCUITS AND A DASH EIGHT INBOUND FOR A STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH ON ZERO SEVEN" There is no requirement to read back any of the information communicated but without a reply the ground operator is left wondering, so the acknowledgment: ROGER THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX Before taxiing at an airfield with an Unicom or CA/GRS service an information request might take this form: TANGAMBALANGA RADIO THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX REQUEST WIND AND TRAFFIC INFORMATION TANGAMBALANGA The response from the ground operator might be: THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX — TANGAMBALANGA RADIO — WIND IS ZERO FIVE ZERO ABOUT FIVE KNOTS — NO KNOWN TRAFFIC And the acknowledgment: ROGER THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX Thruster 0286 would then make a taxiing broadcast when appropriate. 5.4.6 CTAF response calls The difficulty for an inexperienced pilot is what to do — and say — in response to a broadcast from another aircraft that is perceived as a possible traffic conflict; particularly in an environment when high-speed turbo-prop RPT aircraft are operating. Maintaining situation awareness is a must for all pilots. All pilots must be aware of the positions and intentions of all other traffic in the vicinity, and — to determine possible traffic conflicts — able to project the likely movements of such traffic. This is not easy for anyone, particularly so if insufficient information is being provided. This is aggravated when aircraft are conducting straight-in approaches, so extra vigilance must be maintained, remembering the straight-in approach may be on the longest runway rather than the into-wind runway — or it might even be an 'opposite direction' landing. You must maintain a mental plan of the runways and associated circuit patterns, and overlay that with the current positions and announced intentions of other traffic. You must include the possibility of abnormal events; e.g. where is the missed-approach path for the turboprop aircraft currently on a straight-in approach on the longest runway? And you must keep other traffic informed of your intentions. Caution. When something unexpected happens in the circuit, for example a broadcast from another aircraft indicates you may be on a collision course, then naturally you will swivel around to locate the other aircraft. In these conditions there is a tendency to be distracted from flying the aeroplane — a dangerous position when at low speed and low altitude, particularly so if turning base or final. See 'Don't stall and spin in from a turn'. Although a recreational aircraft may have the right of way in a particular traffic situation, it is environmentally positive, courteous and good airmanship for recreational pilots to allow priority to RPT, agricultural aircraft, firefighting and other emergency aircraft, or for that matter any less-manoeuvrable heavy aircraft. The following is an example transmission from an aircraft on downwind which, after making a downwind broadcast, has monitored a straight-in approach call from an RPT turboprop and is now advising all traffic of the intent to extend its downwind leg and then follow the turboprop in — at a safe interval to avoid wake turbulence. TANGAMBALANGA TRAFFIC THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX EXTENDING DOWNWIND / RUNWAY ZERO SEVEN NUMBER TWO TO SAAB ON STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH TANGAMBALANGA An article — Talk Zone— in the May–June 2001 issue of CASA's Flight Safety Australia discusses CTAF radio procedure problems. Substitute 'CTAF' for the 'MBZ' references in the article. 5.4.7 En route procedures Class G airspace There are no mandatory reports for VFR aircraft operating en route in Class G airspace. Thus after departing the airfield vicinity, such aircraft are only required to maintain a listening watch on the 'appropriate frequency' and announce if in potential conflict with other aircraft — see AIP ENR 1.1 section 44. "ALL STATIONS (location)" instead of "(location) TRAFFIC" may be used for the called stations ID (refer AIP ENR 1.1 para. 68.4); for example: ALL STATIONS MAITLAND AREA THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX REQUEST ADVICE ON THE WEATHER CONDITIONS IN THE VFR LANE TO GLOUCESTER So what's the 'appropriate' frequency? This could be: the local Flight Information Area frequency — if so, calls to the Flight Information Service would be directed to Flightwatch which service is provided by either MELBOURNE CENTRE or BRISBANE CENTRE. If close to a major airport then perhaps (for example) SYDNEY RADAR. Frequency information blocks depicting Class E and G area frequencies, and the frequency boundaries, are included on the ERC-L, VNC and VTC charts. a listening watch could be maintained on the International Distress Frequency 121.5. See 'Can it ever be appropriate to monitor 121.5 MHz en route?'; a listening watch could be maintained on other specific frequencies; if below 3000 feet agl then perhaps listen out on Multicom 126.7 MHz ; when passing in or near the vicinity of a non-controlled aerodrome the designated frequency (otherwise 126.7 MHz or the FIA frequency ) for that airfield should be monitored to gain information on area traffic. Class E airspace As in Class G there are no mandatory reports for VFR aircraft operating en route in Class E airspace. Such aircraft are only required to maintain a listening watch on the 'appropriate frequency' and advise any potential conflict to the aircraft involved or to ATC. The choice of frequency would be much the same as in Class G with the addition of the appropriate ATC frequency. The latter must be used to take advantage of the Radar Information Service usually available in Class E. 5.4.8 Acquiring weather and other information in-flight Airservices Australia's Air Traffic Service [ATS] and the Australian Bureau of Meteorology provide several means of obtaining a limited amount of weather and other information while airborne: AERIS — the Automatic En Route Information Service network ATIS — the Automatic Terminal Information Service at some aerodromes AWIS — the Aerodrome Weather Information Service at some aerodromes. FLIGHTWATCH — the on-request Flight Information Service [FIS] provided by ATS. Further FIS information is contained in AIP GEN 3.3 section 2 and in the Flight Information Services section of ERSA GEN-FIS. AERIS AERIS is a network of 14 VHF transmitters that continually transmit routine weather reports for major Australian airports and a few other significantly sited aerodromes. Such information could be a guide to actual weather at airfields in the vicinity of those major airports. CASA has issued the following pilot guide showing the location of AERIS transmitters, the expected VHF coverage for aircraft at 5000 feet, the VHF frequencies and the aerodromes for which weather reports are available from each transmitter. See AIP GEN 3.3 section 2.8 and AIP GEN 3.5 section 7.4. More information will be found in ERSA GEN-FIS-1. ATIS ATIS is provided on either a discrete COMMS frequency or the audio identification channel (NAV band between 112.0 and 117.975 MHz) of an aerodrome navigational aid — generally in a control zone, but again such information could be a guide to actual weather at other airfields in the vicinity. The availability and frequency of the ATIS is specified in the ERSA airfield data. The continuous information broadcast includes the runway in use, wind direction (degrees magnetic) and speed, visibility, present weather, cloud and QNH. See AIP GEN 3.3 section 2.7. AWIS Australian Bureau of Meteorology automatic weather stations [AWS] are located at about 190 airfields. All the stations are accessible by telephone and about 70 are also accessible by VHF NAV/COMMS radio. The access telephone numbers and the VHF frequencies of the AWS can be found by entering the 'Location information' page and downloading the pdf for the relevant state. The information is also available in the aerodrome facilities section of ERSA and in the ERSA MET section. The AWIS uses pre-recorded spoken words to broadcast the current observations collected by the AWS — surface wind, pressure, air temperature, dew point temperature and rainfall. (For example, call 08 8091 5549 to hear the AWS aerodrome weather at Wilcannia, NSW.) In both the ATIS and AWIS reports, wind direction is given in degrees magnetic. This is because they are associated with aerodrome operations where runway alignments are in degrees magnetic, and conformity makes the crosswind estimate easier. Wind direction in all the text-based meteorological reports and forecasts is given in degrees true. At aerodromes where ceilometer and vismeter sensors are available, the AWIS will report cloud amount, height and visibility but the reliability of such observations is limited — the AWIS broadcasts the aerodrome weather derived from the AWS instrumentation and without any human input. The wind direction is expressed in degrees magnetic to the nearest 10°. Note that some of the VHF frequencies are in the NAV band; i.e. the broadcasts are on the airfield VOR frequency. More information is available in the MET section of ERSA online. Flightwatch Flightwatch is the call-sign of the on-request service — contained within Airservices Australia's FIS — which provides information of an operational nature to aircraft operating in Class G airspace. Whether Flightwatch is able to respond to an information request from an RA-Aus aircraft depends on workload and whether the requested information is readily available to the Flightwatch operator contacted — for example, the actual weather at the smaller airfields. The Flight Information Areas and FIS frequencies are depicted in ERC-L. An information request to Flightwatch should take the following form — note the Flightwatch operator may be managing quite a number of frequencies so the FIA frequency used (for example 119.4 MHz) must be included in the transmission: BRISBANE CENTRE FLIGHTWATCH THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ONE ONE NINE DECIMAL FOUR REQUEST ACTUAL WEATHER LISMORE Acquiring QNH It is not mandatory for VFR aircraft to use the area QNH whilst en route. You may substitute the current local QNH of any aerodrome within 100 nm of the aircraft. Or, if the local QNH at the departure airfield is not known, you can — while still on the ground — just adjust the sub-scale so that altimeter reads the airfield elevation. Local QNH of airfields within 100 nm of the route might be acquired from AERIS, ATIS or AWIS; otherwise, area QNH can be obtained from Flightwatch: BRISBANE CENTRE FLIGHTWATCH THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX ONE ONE NINE DECIMAL FOUR REQUEST QNH AREA TWO TWO 5.4.9 The Surveillance Information Service [SIS] Transponder-equipped VFR aircraft operating in Class E or Class G airspace within the ATC radar coverage (the tan and green colours in the map approximate the lower level coverage) may request a no-cost radar/ADS-B information service [SIS] on the appropriate ATC frequency. (SIS was formerly known as the Radar Information Service [RIS].) The SIS is available to improve situation awareness by providing traffic information and position information or navigation assistance. VFR pilots may also request an ongoing 'flight following' service from SIS, so that ATC monitor your flight progress and can also help you avoid controlled airspace. The requested service will be provided subject to the controller's current workload — their primary responsibility is towards IFR aircraft — but there is usually no problem, particularly if you have filed a flight plan. Refer to AIP GEN 3.3 section 2.16 for the general procedure and remember that you still must comply with CAR 163A which states: 'Responsibility of flight crew to see and avoid aircraft When weather conditions permit, the flight crew of an aircraft must, regardless of whether an operation is conducted under the Instrument Flight Rules or the Visual Flight Rules, maintain vigilance so as to see, and avoid, other aircraft.' Position information and flight following request call format (Location) CENTRE CALL-SIGN (Altitude) (general vicinity) (destination) REQUEST POSITION INFORMATION AND FLIGHT FOLLOWING It is probably advisable to make a short contact call first then when the 'go ahead' response is received send the message. MELBOURNE CENTRE THRUSTER ZERO TWO EIGHT SIX THREE THOUSAND / VICINITY ROMSEY FOR POINT COOK REQUEST POSITION INFORMATION AND FLIGHT FOLLOWING RIS will ask you to 'squawk ident' and when your aircraft is identified will assign an unique transponder code plus the navigation information. When navigation assistance and flight following is no longer required advise SIS. 5.4.10 Sourcing frequency information The FIS frequencies to be used in Flight Information Areas and the frequencies at airfields (plus NDB and VOR frequencies) are either contained in ERSA or shown on PCA, ERC-L, VNC and VTC charts. The following table summarises the communications information available from those sources. PCA ERC-L VTC VNC ERSA VHF coverage at 5000 feet VHF coverage at 10000 feet HF network sector frequencies SIS frequencies Flightwatch frequencies FIA boundaries FIS frequencies at airfields Airfields where FIS contact possible from ground Airfield Unicom frequencies VOR/NDB frequencies and ID CTAFs STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.10.1 The global electrical circuit The Earth's surface — ocean and solid — and the ionosphere are highly conductive. The atmosphere conducts electricity because of the presence of positive and negative ions plus free electrons. Conductivity is poor near sea level but increases rapidly with height up to the ionosphere; also it is greater at polar latitudes than equatorial. The conductivity near sea level is low because there are fewer ions, and those ions tend to become attached to the larger aerosol particles that are more common near the surface. Refer to section '1.5 Atmospheric moisture'. During fair weather there is an electric potential difference of 250 000 to 500 000 volts between the ionosphere and the Earth's surface, the surface being negative relative to the ionosphere. This gives rise to the fair weather current, which is a steady flow of electrons from the surface at about one microwatt per square metre. The three main generators in the global electrical circuit are the solar wind entering the magnetosphere, the ionospheric wind and thunderstorms. The average CB generates a current of about one amp during its active period. With an estimated 1000 to 2000 thunderstorms continually active around the globe, emitting possibly 5000 lightning strokes per minute, there is an electrical current of 1000 to 2000 amps continually transferring a negative charge to the surface, and an equal and opposite charge to the upper atmosphere. The electrical charge continually flowing into the stratosphere/ionosphere from the CBs maintains the fair weather current flowing to the surface. 2.10.2 Static charge and discharge Apart from the CB clouds, the atmosphere carries a net positive charge and the electric potential increases with height, and in cloud and fog. Strong electrical forces also exist in and around rain showers, which can transfer a charge of either polarity to the surface, or to an aircraft. Static electricity is the imbalance of negative and positive charge. Aircraft accumulate electrical charges in two ways. The most substantial is from flying through the extremely high voltage electrical fields associated with CB, or potential CB development. The static charge can pervade the whole aircraft, internally and externally, and render navaids useless. The rapid discharge of this charge — a single-channel spark discharge rather than a slow bleed-off from the airframe — may happen in any conditions, but the chances are more probable in temperatures between 10 °C and –10 °C, and where flying in rain mixed with snow. The other lesser type is precipitation static. The aircraft charge accumulates from the charge carried by precipitation particles, particularly snow crystals, and separates when the particles break up against the aircraft. Maximum build-up occurs in temperatures a few degrees either side of 0 °C. Static charges imparted to antennae will affect communications, particularly navaids where the effect on signal-to-noise ratio may be considerable. The built-up static charge is usually slowly bled off into the atmosphere, or as a quiet, non-luminous point discharge. In extreme build-ups, the consequent corona discharge streamers or brush discharge are manifested as St Elmo's fire, which is usually not visible in daylight but visible at night as a continuous, luminous blue-green discharge from wing tips, propellers and protuberances. 2.10.3 Lightning The electrostatic structure within CB, or CU CON, is such that pockets of different charge exist throughout the cloud. Generally, the main net positive charge resides on the ice crystals in the upper part of the cloud and the main net negative charge of similar magnitude is centred near the middle or lower part of the cloud at the sub-freezing level. That charge mainly resides on supercooled droplets. A smaller positive charge centre may exist at the bottom of the cloud where temperatures are above freezing. The electrostatic forces of repulsion and attraction induce secondary charge accumulations outside the cloud, a positive region accumulates on the Earth's surface directly below the cloud. Above the cloud, positive ions are transferred away from, and negative ions are transferred toward, the cloud. One favoured theory for the charge separation mechanism is the 'precipitation' theory. This suggests that the disintegration of large raindrops, and the interaction between the smaller cloud particles and the larger precipitation particles in the updrafts and downdrafts, causes the separation of electrical charge — with downward motion of negatively charged cloud and precipitation particles, and upward motion of positively charged cloud particles. Discharge channels Lightning is a flow of current, or discharge, along an ionised channel that equalises the charge difference between two regions of opposite charge; this occurs when the charge potentials exceed the electrical resistance of the intervening air. These discharges can be between the charged regions of the same cloud (intra-cloud), between the cloud and the ground (cloud-to-ground), between separate clouds (cloud-to-cloud) or between the base of a cloud and a charge centre in the atmosphere underneath it (cloud-to-air). The discharge channels, or streamers, propagate themselves through the air by establishing, and maintaining, an avalanche effect of free electrons that ionise atoms in their path. Lightning rates, particularly intra-cloud strokes, increase greatly with increase in the depth of clouds. Cloud-to-cloud and cloud-to-air discharges are rare but tend to be more common in the high-base CB found in the drier areas of Australia. Discharges above the CB anvil into the stratosphere and mesosphere also occur. When intra-cloud lightning — the most common discharge — occurs, it is most often between the upper positive and the middle negative centres. The discharge path is established by a 'stepped leader', the initial lightning streamer that grows in stages and splits into more and more branches, as it moves forward seeking an optimal path between the charge centres. The second, and subsequent, lightning strokes in a composite flash are initiated by 'dart leaders', streamers that generally follow the optimum ionised channel established by the stepped leader. The associated electrical current probably peaks at a few thousand amperes. A distant observer cannot see the streamers but sees a portion of the cloud become luminous, for maybe less than 0.5 seconds, hence 'sheet lightning'. Cloud-to-ground discharges Most cloud-to-ground discharges occur between the main negatively charged region and the surface — initially by a stepped leader from the region, which usually exhibits branching channels as it seeks an optimal path. When the stepped leader makes contact, directly with the surface or with a 'ground streamer' (which is another electrical breakdown initiated from the surface positive charge region and which rises a short distance from the surface), the cloud is short-circuited to ground; to complete each lightning stroke, a 'return streamer', or return stroke, propagates upwards. (The return streamer starts as positive ions that capture the free electrons flowing down the channel and emit photons. The streamer carries more positive ions upward, and their interaction with the free-flowing electrons gives the impression of upwards movement.) The charge on the branches of the stepped leader that have not been grounded flow into the return streamer. Subsequent strokes in the composite flash are initiated by dart leaders, with a return streamer following each contact. The return streamer, lasting 20–40 microseconds, propagates a current-carrying core a few centimetres in diameter with a current density of 1000 amperes per cm² and a total current typically 20 000 amps, but peaks could be much greater. A charged sheath or corona, a few metres in diameter, exists around the core. The stroke sequence of dart leader–return streamer occurs several times in each flash to ground, giving it a flickering appearance. Each stroke draws charge from successively higher regions of the CB and transfers a negative charge to the surface. Return streamers occur only in cloud-to-ground discharges and are so intense because of the Earth's high conductivity. Some rare discharges between cloud and ground are initiated from high surface structures or mountain peaks, by an upward-moving stepped leader and referred to as a ground-to-cloud discharge. Rather rarely an overhanging anvil-to-ground discharge can be triggered by heavy charge accumulation in the anvil, and the high-magnitude strike can move many kilometres from the storm — a 'bolt from the blue', but another reason for recreational pilots to give large storm cells a very wide berth. The temperature of the ionised plasma in the return streamer is at least 30 000 °C and the pressure is greater than 10 atmospheres. This causes supersonic expansion of the channel, which absorbs most of the dissipated energy in the flash. The shock wave lasts for 10–20 microseconds and moves out several hundred metres before decaying into the sound wave — thunder — with maximum energy at about 50 hertz. The shock wave can damage objects in its path. The channel length is typically 5 km. Channel length can be roughly determined by timing the thunder rumble after the initial clap; e.g. a rumble lasting for 10 seconds x 335 m/sec = 3.3 km channel length. When a lightning stroke occurs within 150 m or so, the observer hears the shock wave as a single, high-pitched bang. Effect on aircraft instruments The lightning discharges emit radio waves — atmospherics or 'sferics — at the low end of the AM broadcast band and at TV band 1. These radio waves are the basis for airborne storm mapping instruments such as Stormscope and Strikefinder. The NDB/ADF navigation aids also operate near the low end of the AM band, so that the tremendous radio frequency energy of the storm will divert the radio compass needle. Weather radars map storms from the associated precipitation. Strike effect on aircraft When most aeroplanes, excluding ultralights, are struck by lightning the streamer attaches initially to an extremity such as the nose or wing tip, then reattaches itself to the fuselage at other locations as the aircraft moves through the channel. The current is conducted through the electrically bonded aluminium skin and structures of the aircraft, and exits from an extremity such as the tail. If an ultralight is struck by lightning, the consequences cannot be determined but are likely to be very unpleasant. Ultralights particularly should give all CBs a wide berth; supercells and line squalls should be cleared by 25–30 nm at least. Although a basic level of protection is provided in most light aeroplanes for the airframe, fuel system and engines, there may be damage to wing tips, propellers and navigation lights, and the current has the potential to induce transients into electrical cables or electronic equipment. The other main area of concern is the fuel tanks, lines, vents, filler caps and their supporting structure, where extra design precautions prevent sparking or burn-through. In heavier aircraft, radomes constructed of non-conductive material are at risk. 2.10.4 Red sprites and blue jets When large cloud-to-ground lightning discharges occur below an extensive CB cluster with a spreading stratiform anvil, other discharges are generated above the anvil. These discharges are in the form of flashes of light lasting just a few milliseconds and probably not observable by the untrained, naked eye but readily recorded on low-light video. Red sprites are very large but weak flashes of light emitted by excited nitrogen atoms and equivalent in intensity to a moderate auroral arc. They extend from the anvil to the mesopause at an altitude up to 90 km. The brightest parts exist between 60–75 km, red in colour and with a faint red glow extending above. Blue filaments may appear below the brightest region. Sprites usually occur in clusters that may extend 50 km horizontally. Blue jets are ejected above the CB core and flash upward in narrow cones, which fade out at about 50 km. These optical emissions are not aligned with the local magnetic field. Images and further information are available at the University of Alaska site. 2.10.5 Auroral displays The Aurora Australis is usually only seen from latitudes higher than 60° south but may sometimes be seen from the Australian mainland. The displays, or aurora storms, take place at altitudes of 100–300 km. The auroral glow is caused by an increase in the number of high-energy, charged particles in the solar wind (separated hydrogen protons and electrons) associated with increased solar flare activity. Some of these particles, captured by the magnetosphere, are accelerated along the Earth's open magnetic field lines (which are only open in the polar regions) and penetrate to the inner Van Allen belt, overloading it and causing a discharge of the charged particles into the ionosphere. The discharges extend in narrow belts 20–25° or so from each magnetic pole. The excitation of oxygen and nitrogen atoms by collision with the particles causes them to emit visible radiation — forming moving patches, bands and columns of limited colours. The display colour depends on the gas and the altitude. Oxygen atoms emit a red glow at high levels, orange at medium levels and pale green at low levels. Nitrogen emits blue and violet at high levels and red at low levels. The major forms of auroral display, and typical sequence of appearance, are: glow — a faint glow near the horizon, usually the first indication of an aurora arch — a bow-shaped arc running east to west, usually with a well-defined base and small waves or curls rays — vertical rays or streaks, often signifying the start of an aurora substorm and forming into bands band — a broad, folded curtain moving in waves and curves, and indicating maximum activity is near corona — rays appear to converge near the zenith veil — a weak, even light across a large part of the sky often preceding the end of the display patch — an indistinct nebulous cloud-like area which may appear to pulsate. Extensive auroral displays, which are associated with high sunspot activity, are accompanied by disturbances in radio communications. The period of maximum and minimum intensity of the aurora follows the 11-year sunspot cycle. STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

1.6.1 Effective teaching strategies Strategy One: Using adult learning techniques Adults learn differently from children and have different learning needs. They come to pilot training with years of experience and successful achievements in other fields, and need to be given respect for their abilities in their own field of expertise. Instructors have to recognise that adults are goal-oriented and expect to know what they will learn and why it is important. They need to know that the instructor has a plan for their learning and will ensure they progress. They expect a goal for every lesson and they need to know how they have progressed in meeting the goal. Learning to fly puts some adults into a psychologically vulnerable position. The aircraft is an environment that is unfamiliar and complex. Self-esteem and ego are put on the line, and learning is hampered if the environment is not seen as supportive or safe psychologically. In learning to fly, adults have to feel comfortable in expressing confusion and misunderstandings. My best instructors made me feel psychologically safe in the environment. At no time did I hesitate in asking them to explain something again, or clear up my own misconceptions. They treated all my questions with dignity and respect. I was never made to feel incompetent or stupid. Strategy Two: Finding another way to explain the same concept Occasionally it was a struggle to wrap my brain around a particular concept. The good instructors found multiple ways of explaining the same idea. They drew pictures, they called on metaphors, they told stories, they put me in the cockpit, or they used information I already knew. The store of different ideas they called upon to help me understand seemed limitless. I remember I had difficulty working out why the ball went to the right when I put too much rudder into the left turn. Alan asked, "What happens if you put an orange on the dash board of your car and you turn sharply to the left? The orange of course rolls to the right". I will never forget that now because he found a way to connect a flying concept to something I understood. All three instructors could do that. None of them ever resorted to saying, "But I told you that yesterday!" Strategy Three: Limiting the cognitive load The capacity of our working memory is limited. We can only 'attend' to and 'process' so much information at one time. In the working memory, duration is short (about 5 to 20 seconds) and information can be lost unless you keep rehearsing it mentally — like saying a phone number over and over. Poor instructors put you in the aeroplane, get you in the air and try to tell you everything in one flight. That's like pouring water in a glass. Instead of stopping when it is full, you continue to pour but the water just runs over and is wasted. Working memory acts like that. Too much information at one time means most of it may be wasted. Additionally, if you become stressed or the information is too complex, you will have less mental space to process it. I used to go 'unconscious' when I was on short final because too much was happening, so my brain literally gave up. I could see, hear and communicate, but I didn't know what to do. The best instructors recognised the problem straight away and limited the amount of information I had to deal with. In the case of landing, Paul worked the rudders, and I worked the throttle and the stick. Gradually, more and more of the controls were relinquished to me when I was ready to deal with them. This kept me learning and conscious without overloading my brain and frustrating me. Strategy Four: Scaffolding student's learning A scaffold is a temporary support. In education terms, scaffolding is providing temporary supports for learning by 'giving information, prompts, reminders and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts'. This is different from telling a student the answer. Students may not understand the answer. They may misunderstand the answer. They may forget the answer. They may get into the habit of waiting for the instructor to tell them the answer. Scaffolding is a defensible educational technique. It involves prompting the student to use their own brain cells to make connections and to work things out, but is given just enough assistance to help the process. I remember doing circuits in rough air conditions and worrying about my landings so much that I would forget my downwind checks. Instead of telling me to do them, Keith would ask, "What leg of the circuit are we on?" and when I answered "downwind" I would remember that I had to do my checks. In flight, if I had forgotten to turn off the fuel pump, he would ask if I had sufficient fuel. This would trigger the brain into checking everything to do with fuel and I would discover the fuel pump was on and turn it off. By using this technique, he forced me to do the thinking and problem solving rather than continually relying on him to do the thinking for me. Strategy Five: Focusing on priorities and key ideas There is a lot to learn when you begin your flight training. Everything you see, everything you touch in the cockpit, everything you are told, everything you read is important. The amount of information you must attend to and the number of tasks you must complete seem astronomical. Alan talked to me one day about priorities in flying. He made me work out what the main priority was for each stage of the flight beginning with the pre-flight. For example, the most important priorities in takeoff were oil and fuel. The most important priority on final was airspeed, and so on. This exercise was a great assistance in flying because although one tries to keep track of everything, if you have to let something go, the things you continue to look after are the priorities. When I transferred my training to Cooranbong, I was faced with the challenge of mastering procedures in an aerodrome with contra circuits (one side for GA, the other side for ultralights), in a CTAF with two other aerodromes and LOTS OF TRAFFIC. I was used to Temora where a busy circuit was me and one other aircraft. My first flight at Cooranbong was very stressful because I could hear masses of radio calls but I didn't know where the aircraft were or what they were saying. After the flight, Keith told me to listen for key words in the radio calls from other aircraft (that signified position) rather than try to listen to everything. He then followed up this advice by making me sit and listen to the calls on his radio and practise working out where the aircraft were. That was such a simple idea, but so effective in helping me unravel the mysteries of aircraft positions in the new CTAF. Now I am a pilot. I have my cross country, radio and passenger endorsements. I finally made it to this point because I had some instructors who helped me learn and did it in a way that did not destroy my dignity. I feel really pleased with myself. Alan, Paul, Keith and some of the other instructors can feel pleased with themselves too. My success is linked in a great part to their use of effective teaching strategies. 1.6.2 Ineffective teaching strategies Not all of my training was helpful. Sometimes other instructors engaged in practices that frustrated my learning, and made it more difficult and time-consuming for me to attain my pilot certificate. Unhelpful instructor attitude There are many factors that affect how we as adults learn. They include our level of ability, intelligence, motivation and financial resources, as well as the skill of our instructors and their ability to analyse the problems students are having and devise ways to help the students overcome those problems. The instructor's attitude and way of communication to the student is paramount in assisting or frustrating this learning process. An instructor who has the 'if you can't learn it the first time I say it, there is something wrong with you' attitude will lose students or at least affect their attempts to learn. For example, when I began learning, I trained with a GA instructor in the US for a month. I used to fly twice a week but it was a debilitating experience. (In fact, I stopped training for eight years because he made me feel so incompetent.) When we began to practise circuits, I had trouble with the landings. As usual, I went practically unconscious on short final. I forgot ALWAYS to put the last 10% of flaps down. When I tried to land the Cessna, I would kangaroo down the runway. (I got very good at perfecting the kangaroo hop.) The instructor never tried to hide his disgust at my efforts. "That's horrible! I've told you what to do!!!", he would scream at me. Circuit after circuit I would kangaroo and he would yell. I actually knew the landings were horrible. I was desperately trying to do what he told me. His yelling at me did not EVER improve the situation. "Scan the runway, scan the runway" he would scream. Well, I didn't actually know what "scan the runway" meant. What was I supposed to be seeing, and what was I supposed to be doing? These were never explained. When we stopped, he would depart the aircraft in a huff, storm back to the office and disappear. So much for paying someone to teach me how to fly. Of course I gave up. At that time, it never occurred to me that he might share some of the responsibility for my poor performance. I just assumed that I was incapable of learning. Another unhelpful attitude is the "I'd rather be an airline pilot, not an instructor" attitude. The instructor in the US was definitely not interested in training me or possibly anyone else. He wanted to get his hours up so he could be a real pilot and this was one way to do it. Briefings were fast and furious and most of the content was never absorbed by me before I got into the aircraft. Consequently, I was unable to implement the information he gave me. If he noticed my mistakes, he ignored them, if he didn't he prefaced his remarks with "I TOLD you this before we left" as if TELLING someone something beforehand, out of context, and in an unsupportive environment is going to result in actually implementing the action in the aircraft. This attitude did nothing to help me learn, and did a lot of damage to my self-esteem and my perception of my own ability. The "you'll get it eventually" attitude is one that is most annoying to me as an educator. The number of hours I have clocked up in the log book for circuits is embarrassing now to me as a pilot. Some of the instructors I had stopped giving me instruction on landing very early in the training because they had the "if you do enough of these you will get it eventually without me saying anything" attitude. Their rationale followed along these lines. "I can't give you any visual cues for the circuit because each circuit is different, wind conditions are different, aerodromes are different. You just have to figure out if you are too high, too low, too fast, too slow, whether to put power on or not, watch your airspeed, etc. etc." So I made new mistakes every single circuit for months. I used to despair. I had so many questions and no answers. A couple of instructors sat beside me and watched me do everything wrong for circuit after circuit. Finally, I began asking for input for the WHOLE circuit. I decided I wanted input until I was ready for them to stop. I used to argue with some instructors' "you'll get it eventually" attitude. That may be how some pilots think. And that technique may work with some students, but certainly not all students. It certainly wasn't working with me. That is NOT how good educators think. Educators give input until they see the student doing a task correctly CONSISTENTLY, then GRADUALLY withdraw instructional scaffolding. The problem with allowing students to continue to make mistakes, is that some students perfect mistakes and consolidate their bad habits (want to see my kangaroo hop down the runway?). A better way to teach is to give LOTS of input, EVERY time until the picture becomes ingrained in the student's eye and the control input becomes connected with the picture. My last three instructors worked hard at helping me consolidate the 'picture' of the runway on downwind, base and final, and consolidate in my mind the control input needed to keep the picture right. Because they put in the information and the time, I progressed rapidly and learned to land well. Inadequate record keeping and preparation time Some of my instructors trained pilots as a full time job. Some of the instructors had other full-time employment and only trained as an interest. Some kept scrupulous records of my training and consulted the records before each flight. Some kept records, but never looked at them. Some kept no records. When I changed instructors, the records didn't come with me. That meant that the new instructor had only my log book (with sketchy information on the hours I had attempted certain skills) to make some decisions about my ability and my level of piloting skill. This amount of information was inadequate for the instructor, I realise now. As a student paying for instruction I assumed that all of my instructors would know what I had to learn and would take steps in my training to help me progress. But often they made assumptions about what I could and couldn't do that were not based in fact. When a person changes doctors, medical records are transferred to the new doctor. It would be good if detailed records followed the students who were learning to fly. Even if records did follow students, there is the problem that instructors have so little time to devote to reading them, that keeping track of students' progress can be a problem. There were occasions when instructors would ask me questions like, "Have you done any precautionary landing work?" or "Have you done any short-field take-off and landing work?" as we got into the aircraft. I know everyone is busy. And I do believe that students have to take some responsibility for keeping track of their own learning. But I also know that flight training is expensive and most students would expect that the instructor is keeping track of their progress. I know good educators have a plan for their students' learning. Pilot training is education and therefore the instructors need to find a few minutes before the flight to keep themselves up to speed on the individual plan for each student. Wrong assumptions The best instructors insisted that I talk out loud as I flew so that they knew what I was thinking. The best instructors also ASKED me WHY I made certain decisions so that they could discover the rationale behind my actions. Having students talk out loud or 'self-talk' can give the instructor valuable insights into novice thinking. Vygotsky, one of the most influential educational theorists of the 20th century, believed that 'self talk' helps to regulate our thinking and guide our learning. For the student, self talk can be helpful in focusing, reminding, solving problems, directing attention and forming concepts. Most instructors never asked me to think out loud. They never asked WHY I had made a decision. Perhaps they thought they knew the answer. Perhaps they were right, but perhaps they were WRONG. How can anyone work out why a student has taken a particular course of action unless they ASK them? Once the good instructors knew why I had completed a task in a certain way (that always made perfect sense to me), they were able to point out the flaws in my thinking or give me additional information that would assist my understanding. Another wrong assumption held by some instructors is that students will automatically understand why instructors insist on something being done in a certain way. Because it is perfectly clear to the instructor, perhaps they think it is perfectly clear to the student. This is not always the case. For example, I learned the start-up and run-up checklists by rote, but I didn't know for a long time WHY I had to do some of the tasks. I just knew they had to be done. Do what I say, not what I do This really sounds like stating the obvious, but students tend to copy the behavior and the attitude they see modelled by the teacher. Remember the old saying, "You remember 10% of what you are told, 60% of what you see, and 80 % of what you do"? I had an instructor very early in my training who told me to taxi at the speed of walking. Like so much information that is TOLD to you, its shelf-life in my brain was very brief, especially when I watched him taxi at nearly lift-off speed all morning. When I got in the aircraft, I remembered what I saw vividly and only dimly remembered what he had said. So I too taxied as fast as I could and still stay on the ground. Of course, I got chipped for that, but my reply was, "but you have done this all morning". Other examples include instructors not giving the mandatory radio calls, not entering the circuit properly, telling me to always put the carb heat on final, but not doing it themselves and so on. For students this is confusing and I always thought, "Why is it important that I learn to do something a certain way when a REAL pilot doesn't do it?" Of course they all had good reasons for doing something differently. However, with novice students, it is important for the instructor to maintain consistency between what they teach the student to do and what they model themselves. If the rules are changed, students have to know the circumstances in which a change in the rules can occur. 1.6.3 Expertise in teaching This article is not about instructor bashing. I have had some wonderful instructors. This article is about starting and continuing a professional dialogue with instructors concerning their teaching and the learning of their students – taking into account feedback from students. It's about raising an awareness of some of the teaching strategies instructors may use that are unhelpful from, at least, one student's point of view. Instructors are good pilots, but good pilots are not necessarily good teachers. Teaching takes as much skill and as much expertise as flying. Each student is different, each set of problems that student brings is different, and each student's learning style, aptitude and intelligence is different. Expert teachers in any field have "elaborate systems of knowledge for understanding the problems" of their students. They recognise common problems that students encounter and have a wealth of strategies they can call upon to help students overcome learning difficulties. Expert teachers also recognise that student decisions can be based on misinformation or misunderstanding and find ways of correcting these. Expert teachers are reflective practitioners who think about student learning problems and actively engage in thinking of alternatives to assist their students. They reflect on their own teaching and assess how effective their teaching strategies are in helping students achieve learning outcomes. And they are prepared to change their teaching to ensure that students learn what they need to know. I know my best instructors not only displayed expertise in teaching but also displayed a genuine desire to improve their practice; a sure sign of a professional who takes teaching seriously. 1.6.4 Take responsibility for your learning One pilot (James) told this story about his training. "When I did my pilot training, I remember I was a bit overawed by the whole idea of learning to fly. I knew absolutely nothing about flying, only knew I wanted to fly. So I took a very passive role in my training. I just went along and did what the instructor told me –nothing more. Consequently, it took me longer to catch on that it should have. If I did it again, I would probably take a more active role in my own learning." Pilot training is expensive and time-consuming. How long it takes to learn to fly, really depends on how long the student needs to be competent in physically handling the aircraft and understanding the theories associated with flight. For adults, training is an addition to a generally already frantically busy life. Many responsibilities compete for the time available to adults. However, there are a number of strategies that adult student pilots can employ to facilitate their learning – many take very little time and can be done mentally, while waiting for the wife or husband. Learning to be a pilot is the result, not so much of what the teacher does, but what cognitive processing is occurring in the student's mind. Student pilots should not leave all the responsibility for learning to the instructor or expect that learning is the result of an instructor pouring their expertise into a student's passive brain. Learning is an active construction of integrating new information with information we already know. The student is the only one that can do that. Remember the saying "You can lead a horse to water, but you can't make him drink"? The instructor can give a student all the good oil in the world, but the student has to actively engage in making sense of the information. This article forwards a number of strategies that may help student pilots to facilitate their own learning. These strategies were solicited in interviews with pilots and instructors, and have a theoretical basis in educational learning research. They have been organised into three sections of actions students can take: before the flight, during the instructional time and after the flight. They all follow the same theme, "Take Responsibility for your Learning". Pre-flight preparation Flying is a combination of physical and mental development and understanding. The student can help himself by reading the theoretical aspects of flight that will be the focus of the next lesson. While reading, the student should note any questions that occur. These questions can then be addressed by the instructor in the course of the lesson. When learning new information, it is not uncommon for individuals to have to revisit some concepts more than once for them to make sense. Reading the theory beforehand helps this process of learning because it establishes a cognitive framework that can be reinforced through instruction and implementation. There are other kinds of mental preparation that students can employ to prepare them for their flight besides reading the theory. One technique that some find useful is visualisation. If a student is going to do circuits, for example, she or he can fly the circuits in their mind, going through all the checks, motions and radio calls that they will be required to do in the aircraft on each leg of the circuit. If the student is going on a navigation exercise, she or he can fly the nav several times at home in a chair, looking at the chart, practising calls and changes of heading, and so on. Visualisation of a process or procedure can help students to implement them more effectively and efficiently when faced with the real thing. Another useful technique is physical preparation. One instructor suggested that students who have difficulty sorting out their circuit directions could practise them at home by drawing a circuit on the garage floor and walking the various legs of the circuit until the crosswind, downwind, base and final legs were clear in their mind. This technique has also been used for learning how to position the aircraft nose relative to the wind on different legs of the circuit. This represents a kind of kinaesthetic rehearsal — a technique that sportsmen use to 'practise' various aspects of their sport when they are not on the field. This technique can also be used early on in training to become familiar with the position of the controls and avionics while sitting in a parked aircraft. Sitting in the stationary aircraft and rehearsing emergency procedures for engine outs, engine fires and electrical faults can also be a good preparation for the real thing when students say the process and physically touch the controls and switches that need to be turned off or used. Writing down the terminology and the order for making radio calls and practising them at home is another good way for novices to learn to give their radio calls before they get to the aerodrome. There is another kind of physical preparation that is important before the lesson. This falls into the category of "Am I fit to fly today?" One instructor told the story about a training session that ended up being very ordinary because the student had played Rugby Union the day before and was physically not up to the rigours of flight training. Unless students are alert and ready for the flight physically, they may not get much out of that particular lesson. The classic example is the person who had a big Friday night at the pub and then arrives at 8 am the next day to fly ? not a pretty sight. Self-motivation and study to prepare for the lesson are essential, but having your body ready is also very important. Instructors do not always have the time in the lesson to explain all areas of the syllabus in great detail. Information on engines, propellers and weather conditions is important. Student pilots should show some initiative and do some reading in these areas to supplement the actual learning that occurs when they are in the aircraft. A final useful technique is for students to make a list of learning priorities for their own lessons. This helps to focus attention and mental energy, and helps students to actively engage in those aspects of the lesson that contribute to their priorities. Instructional time Being a good pilot requires knowledge not only flying but also a thorough knowledge of the aircraft, its capabilities, limits and procedures for handling on the ground as well as in the air. It's a good idea to arrive at the aerodrome early and read the aircraft manual so you are familiar with the technical specifications unique to that aircraft. It is also a good idea to assist the instructor in activities like refuelling, moving the aircraft and finding out where to do engine start-up procedures. Flying is such fun and the temptation is to enjoy every minute in the cockpit at the expense of doing the work well. One of the instructors said that students need to understand that learning to fly is 'work', not 'play'. Students need to keep their mind on the tasks at hand and actively engage in establishing and improving their skills. Their 'head' needs to be in the cockpit and not on what happened last night or will happen tonight. The operation of the aircraft requires the full attention of the novice aviator. A good technique to help focus attention to tasks and problem-solve is 'self-talk'. This allows thinking to be clarified by the instructor. Talking out loud also clarifies thinking for the student. Students should also be quick to ask the instructor for advice or input when they are unsure of a procedure or an instruction. Flying regularly at short intervals is more useful than flying once in a while or at long intervals. There is a certain amount of re-learning that has to occur unless the student pilot is preparing for flights by engaging in visualisation or other mental and physical preparation between flights. After the flight Student pilots need to be proactive in searching out the information they need and clarifying the information they don't understand. Instructors can assume that students are following their explanations unless the student gives feedback to the contrary. Student pilots should ask questions about flying, about training, about the expectations of the instructor, about the readings they need to do and about their progress. Students can also engage in reflective thinking about the flight. In fact, flying the lesson again in their mind can help them to realise what actions they took that resulted in various outcomes. They can examine their actions and the thinking they engaged in when performing those actions to determine what they would change or vary the next time they fly. Learning to fly takes a lot of physical and mental energy and effort. Even though most students live busy lives with spare time at a premium, time put aside for preparation is well worth it. The more mental and physical preparation a student engages in before, during and after the flight, the more they will achieve. Students who take responsibility for their learning will reap the rewards and maximise their training. References Section 1. Lieb, S. (2000). Principles of adult learning http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults- Sections 2-4 Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational psychology 9th edition, Sydney: Allyn and Bacon STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)