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A must read for every pilot! The Airplane Flying Handbook provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces basic pilot skills and knowledge that are essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on transition to other airplanes and the operation of various airplane systems. It is developed by the Flight Standards Service, Airman Testing Standards Branch, in cooperation with various aviation educators and industry. This handbook is developed to assist student pilots learning to fly airplanes. It is also beneficial to pilots who wish to improve their flying proficiency and aeronautical knowledge, those pilots preparing for additional certificates or ratings, and flight instructors engaged in the instruction of both student and certificated pilots. It introduces the future pilot to the realm of flight and provides information and guidance in the performance of procedures and maneuvers required for pilot certification. Topics such as navigation and communication, meteorology, use of flight information publications, regulations, and aeronautical decision making are available in other Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications.Occasionally the word "must" or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of suchlanguage is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14CFR).It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and theAeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at www.faa.gov. The current Flight StandardsService airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtainedfrom www.faa.gov. 2016 Edition book is available for download from the Recreational Flying Downloads section

Includes all updates as of 2019! The Advanced Avionics Handbook is a new publication designed to provide general aviation users with comprehensiveinformation on advanced avionics equipment available in technically advanced aircraft. This handbook introduces the pilotto flight operations in aircraft with the latest integrated "glass cockpit" advanced avionics systems.Since the requirements can be updated and the regulations can change, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)recommends that you contact your local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO), where FAA personnel can assist youwith questions regarding advanced avionics equipment flight training and/or advanced avionics equipment questions aboutyour aircraft. Available for download in the Recreational Flying Downloads section

Australia VH- Keyword search: Serial: Canada C- Beginning With Exact Match Ending With Anywhere Common name: Beginning With Exact Match Ending With Anywhere Model name: Beginning With Exact Match Ending With Anywhere Serial number: Beginning With Exact Match Ending With Anywhere Owner name: Beginning With Exact Match Ending With Anywhere USA N- *Manufacturer name: *Model name: Serial Number: Sorted By: N-Number Manufacturer Name Model Name Name

2.12.1 The Bureau of Meteorology's Aviation Weather Service The Australian Government's Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) is required to support civil and military aviation by the provision of aviation weather services in the form of weather observations, forecasts and warning or advisory material. The BoM also supplies selected aviation products to Airservices Australia for their online pilot briefing system — the NAIPS Internet Service [NIS]. The following aviation products can be accessed from the BoM Aviation Weather Services page — select the product category from those listed in the left-hand frame of the page. Aviation forecasts Low-level Area Forecasts [ARFOR] are a coded statement of the general weather situation for the lower levels of the atmosphere (up to 18 500 feet) and the expected conditions for a particular forecast area — the latter as detailed on the PCA or as indicated on the clickable map of Australia. The forecast period is not less than 9 hours or greater than 15 hours. The forecast is available at least one hour before commencement of the validity period. Pilots should regard forecasts as the best possible predictions from professional meteorologists supported with extensive computer modelling. However, meteorologists and computer modelling may not predict local micrometeorological events. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts [TAF] are a statement of the most likely meteorological conditions expected, for a specified period, in the airspace within the vicinity of the aerodrome. TAFs are issued for about one third of Australian aerodromes, at not less than six hourly intervals, and are usually valid for 12 hours. Most of the weather reports and forecasts are encoded using the World Meteorological Organization/International Civil Aviation Organization international weather code. Area QNH (Terminal) Trend Forecasts [TTF] are only issued for the 20 or so major airports and military bases. TTFs are an aerodrome actual weather report combined with a forecast of changes to conditions during the next three hours. The TTF was introduced to overcome the time-span deficiencies of the TAF. Instructions on how to read the ARFORs, TAFs and METARS are available online at the BoM's 'Knowledge Centre', accessible from the right hand side of the Aviation Weather Services page. The older aviation eHelp section still exists on the BoM website. (If a user name is requested use 'bomw0007' and the password 'aviation'.) You may find other useful material via the 'Educational and reference' box. Aviation observations Aerodrome routine meteorological reports [METARs] are routine observations of weather conditions at an aerodrome issued on the hour or half hour, often through automatic weather stations. SPECI are special reports issued when conditions meet specified criteria. Aerological diagrams and low level wind profiles are useful information for glider pilots. Aviation weather packages Click the 'Charts only' button from the options provided to display all of the following: The latest Australian mean sea level pressure analysis The latest Australian mean sea level pressure forecasts The latest satellite image The aerodrome weather information service [AWIS] Automatic weather stations [AWS] are located at about 190 airfields. All the stations are accessible by telephone and about 70 are also accessible by VHF NAV/COMM radio. The access telephone numbers and the VHF frequencies of the AWS can be found by entering the 'Location information' page and downloading the pdf for the relevant state. For an example of the service from an AWS call 08 8091 5549 to hear the current automatic weather information broadcast at Wilcannia, NSW. 'Plain English' area forecasts, terminal aerodrome forecasts and meteorological observations Ian Boag has produced an excellent, freely available, online, well-tested, plain language meteorological translator [PLMT] available here on Recreational Flying (.com) under Resources , providing current ARFOR, METAR and TAF within all Australian ARFOR areas decoded into 'plain English'. However, pilots must still get the NOTAM from the Airservices site. Bear in mind that CAR 120 imposes penalties for use of forecasts that were not made with the authority of the Director of Meteorology, or by a person approved for the purpose by CASA, and it may be that plain English conversions are not authorised by the Director, but as the original section of code is presented under the decoded text, it is most likely that there is no problem with Ian Boag's excellent facility; it could be conceived as an learning tool for student pilots. Student pilots should be aware that the ability to decode BoM aviation reports and forecasts will be tested in some of the aviation examinations. General weather observations, forecasts and radar images Access to the latest general rather than aviation specific weather observations and forecasts plus satellite imagery (visible and infrared) are obtained via the BoM home page. Weather radar images (precipitation location and intensity), from about 50 weather watch radars, are updated at 10 minute intervals. The images from individual radars cover an area of 256 km radius but may be combined into a larger mosaic. The last four snapshots from each radar can be looped to provide a good indication of current storm development, intensity plus the direction and rate of movement. Lightning tracker websites such as Weatherzone provide useful information on current storm location and movement. 2.12.2 Airservices Australia's NAIPS Internet Service The most convenient way to download the coded ARFOR, TAF and METAR plus the NOTAM is from Airservices Australia's NAIPS Internet Service [NIS], 'a multi-function, computerised, aeronautical information system. It processes and stores meteorological and NOTAM information as well as enabling the provision of briefing products and services to pilots and the Australian Air Traffic Control platform'. NIS is accessed through the internet with any web browser or access may be integrated within flight planning software. The Bureau of Meteorology provides all the weather products to the NIS. You must register with AsA before you can access the NIS. You are required to create a 'user name' and a password. If you don't have an ARN or Pilot Licence Number leave that field blank, don't use your RA-Aus or other sport and recreational organisation membership/Pilot Certificate number, it may conflict with someone's Aviation Reference Number. Download the NIS user manual (1.6 MB). When registered, you can log in; enter user name and password, and then click the required link. If you choose 'Area Briefing' you can select up to five briefing areas by clicking on the map or by entering the required areas in the entry boxes, and then click on the 'Submit Request' button. The ARFOR plus TAFs and METARs and NOTAM for the aerodromes in that area will be presented in the form of a pre-flight briefing. See an actual briefing with explanatory notes added. For further information read the weather check section of the Flight Planning and Navigation Guide. 2.12.3 Acquiring weather information in flight There are several means of obtaining a limited amount of weather information while airborne: AERIS — the Automatic Enroute Information Service network ATIS — the Automatic Terminal Information Service at some aerodromes AWIS — the Aerodrome Weather Information Service at all automatic weather stations can be accessed by telephone and about 70 of them also provide VHF access. FLIGHTWATCH — the on-request service provided by Airservices Australia. For further information read the acquiring weather information section of the VHF Radiocommunications Guide. Inflight weather warning broadcasts by Air Traffic Services SIGMETs report the occurrence or expectation of significant meteorological events such as widespread duststorms, a severe line squall or heavy hail. SIGMETs are issued by the BoM but broadcast by the Air Traffic Service for the affected area as a hazard alert; see AIP GEN section 5.1. AIRMETs report the occurrence or expectation of less severe meteorological events and applies only to aircraft operating below 10 000 feet. AIRMETs are issued by the BoM but broadcast by the Air Traffic Service as a hazard alert for the affected area; see AIP GEN section 5.3. 2.12.4 AIP Book and ERSA Airservices Australia publishes online versions of the AIP Book and ERSA at www.airservicesaustralia.com/publications/aip.asp. You must click the 'I agree' button to gain entry. For further information about the meteorological service reports and forecasts, read the section AIP GEN 3.5 (about 50 pages). To find a particular section of AIP or ERSA you have to click through a number of index pages. The section/sub-section/paragraph numbering system is designed for an amendable loose leaf print document and you may find it a little confusing as an on-line document. STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.11.1 Light scatter Rayleigh and Mie scatter Some of the visible light radiation from the sun, passing through the atmosphere bounces off atoms, molecules and other particles, and is scattered in all directions without losing energy or altering frequency. Gas molecules, being very much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (0.4 to 0.8 microns, see section 1.8 Electromagnetic wave spectrum), scatter the shorter violet and blue wavelengths much more strongly than the longer yellow and red wavelengths. But as the human eye is not very sensitive to violet light, the skyglow appears blue. Atmospheric dust and smoke particles are considerably larger than the gas molecules. But they may still be smaller than the wavelengths of visible light and thus also selectively scatter the blue end of the spectrum, but more strongly than the gas molecules. This phenomenon is termed selective scatter or Rayleigh scatter. Cloud droplets and small ice crystals are some 50 times larger than the light wavelengths and scatter all equally. Thus the light scattered from clouds retains the white light spectra, Mie scatter, and even though the droplets are colourless and transparent, the clouds appear white. Thicker clouds have darker bases because most of the light is scattered out the top and sides. When the sun is directly overhead, the direct parallel rays that reach the eye from the sun's disc travel only a short distance through the atmosphere, so the sun's disc appears white. As the sun lowers, the distance travelled through the atmosphere increases, as does the scattering of the blue end. The depleted unscattered light that reaches the eye makes the disc appear yellow to orange to red, depending on the number and size of non-gaseous particles in the air. If there is a lot of dust or smoke haze in the path, only the red end of the sun's rays will remain unscattered — even the scattered light becomes reddish. The amount of the visible light spectrum scattered is dependent on line-of-sight distance through the atmosphere. The sky near the horizon appears less blue, or whiter, at midday than the sky overhead; thus if the atmosphere were thicker, the sky would be whiter. Similarly, when looking horizontally at a series of mountain ranges they appear bluer at a distance, until a point where the far ranges start to appear whiter than those in the middle distance. The trees on the ranges emit terpenes or essential oils — hydrocarbon molecules about 0.2 micron diameter, which combine with ozone infiltrating from the stratosphere. These molecules selectively scatter blue light — hence the blue haze on warm days. Air molecules selectively scatter sunlight forward and backward equally, and at about twice the intensity of the light scattered at right angles to the beam. For particles larger than the wavelengths of light, back-scattered light is less intense than that for gas molecules but forward scatter is much more intense. Thus, in an atmosphere containing many large particles, the sky is less bright than blue sky when looking 'down sun' and much brighter when looking in the azimuth of the sun. White-out conditions can occur when the surface has a complete snow or ice cover, matched with an extensive cloud cover. The brightness of the cloud cover is increased by light that is successively scattered many times between surface and cloud, with little absorption. The light travels in all directions and at all angles. In such conditions there can be no shadows, the horizon line disappears and the form of the landscape is no longer discernible. This leads to spatial disorientation. Partial white-out or flat light is a less severe condition where a pilot's ability to judge ground references for distance, height and attitude are detrimentally affected. Twilight effects The characteristic light, during the morning and evening twilight periods, is due to atmospheric scattering. The duration of twilight is geometrically dependent on latitude, season and the observer's elevation. Evening civil twilight is the period from sunset until the centre of the sun's disc is 6° below the normal horizon; i.e. ignoring the topography. If the sky is clear, it is usually practicable to carry out normal outdoor activities without artificial light; thick overcast will reduce available light at the surface considerably during the civil twilight periods, as may elevated topography to the west in the evening and to the east in the morning. Last light is the end of evening civil twilight; and the official end of daylight in VFR air navigation regulations. First light is the beginning of morning civil twilight and the official start of daylight in the regulations. It is not the time at which a line of light appears on the eastern horizon — if you take-off in those conditions you will be night flying. Evening nautical twilight ends when the sun is 12° below the horizon. During this period the western horizon is still clearly defined, weather permitting, and the brighter stars are visible — thus providing good conditions for ocean navigators to take star sights; hence nautical. Noctilucent clouds may be seen in higher latitudes. Evening astronomical twilight ends when the sun is 18° below the horizon, after which all scattered sunlight disappears from the upper atmosphere and the stargazers have good viewing conditions. The morning twilight periods are reversed, of course. The twilight wedge, or curve, divides the Earth's shadow from that part of the sky lit by direct sunlight. It appears on clear days as a blue-grey arc next to the eastern horizon as the sun disappears, highest at the antisolar point and curving down to the horizon. Initially there is a fairly sharp boundary bordered by a reddish band, the counterglow, then becoming diffuse as it rises. An airborne observer should see a sharp boundary above the horizon. Similar shadowing occurs at sunrise on the western horizon. Usually after sunset the sky above that point is pale yellow with a blue-white arch above, the twilight arch, with yellow above and orange sky to either side. As twilight progresses, the arch above the sunset point becomes pink with yellow and orange below. These areas gradually flatten as the sky above changes from blue-grey through to dark blue. The final glimmers on the horizon are possibly greenish-yellow. Very rarely, and mostly when viewed over water when the air is free from any form of haze, a green flash is seen on the top of the sun's disc just before it disappears. Zodiacal light is a faint, luminous glow in the night sky, easily seen in low to mid-latitudes at twilight in moonless conditions. It is caused by sunlight scattered by dust particles in interplanetary space. Zodiacal light extends over the entire sky but is brightest in the zodiacal band, and at about 30° angular distance from the sun, where the intensity is about three times that of the brightest part of the Milky Way. It is best seen when the ecliptic is close to vertical; i.e. autumn evenings and spring mornings. Brightness decreases with angular distance from the sun, being lowest at 120° then gradually increasing to the 180° antisolar point. The enhanced brightness near the solar point, and covering an area 6° by 10°, is the Gegenschein or counter-glow. Airglow is visible infrared [IR] and ultraviolet [UV] emissions from the atoms and molecules in the ionisation layers caused by absorption of much of the solar UV radiation and of cosmic radiation. Daytime airglow, dayglow, may be seen from the surface at twilight when the blue skyglow is sufficiently weak. Dayglow is caused mainly by the dissociation of atoms, whereas nightglow emissions are due to recombination. The sum of all visible nightglow emissions, together with zodiacal light and scattered starlight, can be seen as the faint light between stars. Crepuscular (twilight) rays are alternate light and dark bands that appear to diverge fan-like from the sun's position when it is hidden behind a cloud bank or the topography, in a humid or hazy atmosphere. The rays pass through gaps, like light beams shining through high windows. The divergence is due to perspective, if the rays pass overhead they then appear to converge on the antisolar point — anticrepuscular rays. There are three types of crepuscular rays: rays of light passing through gaps in low clouds rays of light diverging from behind a cloud bank pinkish rays radiating from below the horizon. 2.11.2 Atmospheric optical displays Electromagnetic wave refraction, reflection and diffraction When a light ray passes obliquely from one transparent medium to another, or between layers of different density within the same medium, part of the ray is returned back at the boundary. The remainder, passing through, is deviated from its original course; i.e. its direction changes. The deviation is dependent on angle of incidence; the wave lengths of the light beam, or radio wave; and the refractive index for that medium. The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of electro-magnetic radiation in free space to the speed of radiation in that medium; in air it is effectively 1.0, and in water it is 1.33. Refraction has two components — deviation and dispersion. As the components of sunlight have different wavelengths, in the atmosphere the deviated light ray is dispersed into its component colours but the red light deviates less than the blue light when passing from air through ice crystals or water droplets. Radio waves in the High Frequency [HF] bands are refracted by the ionisation layers in the atmosphere. The downward bending of the wave is sufficient to redirect the wave back to the Earth's surface but at a distance from the transmission point. If there is sufficient energy, the wave may then be reflected back to the ionosphere. Thus a high-energy HF transmission is able to 'skip', between the surface and the ionosphere, for a considerable distance around the world. Reflection is the bounce back of all, or part, of a light ray when it encounters the boundary of the two media, and the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. The amount of light reflected depends on the ratio of the refractive indices for the two media. Diffraction is the bending of a light beam (or radio wave) into the region of the geometric shadow of an obstacle, or the spreading of light waves around obstacles. This produces a series of light and dark bands or rings or coloured spectra, from the inter-ray interference; constructive interference results in light bands, while destructive interference results in dark bands. The degree of diffraction depends on wavelength — red light is diffracted more than blue — and particle size. Ice crystal displays Halos are a range of optical phenomena that result when the sun or moon shines through thin cloud — particularly CS — fog or haze composed of ice crystals. The small ice crystals that grow in the troposphere tend to be hexagonal flat plates or hexagonal columns. Light passing through the sides of a hexagonal ice crystal is refracted in exactly the same way as if it were passing through a 60° prism. The magnitude of the deviation angle depends on the orientation of the crystal. For a 60° ice prism the minimum deviation angle for all orientations is 22°; and for small rotations of the crystal, at the minimum deviation angle, the variation from 22° is insignificant. Thus in an atmosphere of randomly oriented crystals there will be a concentration of rays deviated by 22°. The deviation of light from its original path, through many hexagonal crystals, brings sunlight or moonlight to the observer's eye from different directions and in varying intensities. However, the concentration of refracted rays around 22° produces a solar or lunar halo whose inner, red edge has an angular radius of 22° from the observer's eye. The red edge merges into a yellow band then all the colours overlap in an outer white band. Halos are minimum deviation effects; each colour has a concentration at its minimum deviation angle, but also has a significant amount of light refracted at greater angles and overlaps other colours. Only the red, with the lowest deviation, cannot be overlapped. Light passing through one side and an end of a hexagonal crystal is refracted in the same way as in a 90° prism and, in this case, there will be a concentration of rays at a 46° deviation angle. In suitable conditions a very large solar or lunar halo with an angular radius of 46° may appear, but it will be much less intense than the 22° halo and will rarely be complete. The 22° halo is the most frequently observed of all the ice crystal displays; the 46° halo is rather rare. As cloud crystals grow during fall (flat plates perhaps 50 microns thick and several millimetres across, columns perhaps 100 microns across and several millimetres long), the drag creates lee eddies and the crystals tend to orient with their longest dimension near horizontal. They oscillate randomly as they fall in a spiral path, producing complicated optical effects through reflection, refraction and diffraction. Sun pillars are vertical columns of light that appear above or below the sun, or both, when the sun is near the horizon. They are caused by reflection of sunlight from the near-horizontal surfaces of ice crystals and are similar to the glitter path of sunlight reflected on water. Light pillars are also associated with the moon. A subsun is a particular form of sun pillar seen from an aircraft when the sun is high — becoming a reflected, elongated image of the sun in nearly horizontal ice crystals in lower clouds. The image appears as far below the horizon as the sun is above. Sun pillars may be associated with AC. The parhelic circle is a reflection from the vertical surfaces of horizontally oriented flat plate or columnar crystals when very small ice crystals, diamond dust , fall through the air. The crystals reflect the light in all directions of the azimuth but always downward at the same elevation as the sun. Thus if the sun's elevation is 25° an observer would see the parhelic circle 360° around the horizon by looking up 25°, but usually only part of the faint white circle is seen. The parhelic circle and a sun pillar may form a cross in the sky, centred on the sun. If falling plate crystals maintain a horizontal position, with the sun low in the sky, they have the possibility to refract light to the observer from the sides of the 22° halo, but not from other positions in the halo. The result is a spot of increased light intensity and colour separation — red towards the sun — in the 22° halo each side of the sun, where the halo would intersect the parhelic circle; sometimes it appears with a white tail pointing away from the sun. As the sun elevation increases, the spots move further from the sun and outside the halo, disappearing at sun elevations greater than 60°. These intensified light spots are called parhelia, sundogs or mock suns and are the most common ice crystal phenomenon after 22° halos; they are often associated with CI, CS and possibly AC. Similar effects associated with the moon are paraselena or mock moons. Refraction through the edges of plate crystals with nearly horizontal bases may produce a circumzenithal arc. This is part of a circle, possibly one third, centred directly above the observer's head and above the sun, just outside the 46° halo position. The halo may also be visible. The circumzenithal arc cannot occur when the sun's elevation exceeds 32°. Colour separation occurs with red on the outer rim, blue on the inner. The arc may be associated with CI and CS. An anthelion is a concentration of back reflected light at the anthelic point, 180° from the sun and at the same elevation. The anthelic point may be the centrepoint for various reflection / refraction phenomena — the anthelic arcs. Various other light intensifications are associated chiefly with refraction and may appear in ice crystal displays in Antarctic conditions. Among them are: Parry arcs circumhorizontal arcs supralateral arcs infralateral arcs contact arcs upper and lower tangents to the 22° halo. Cloud droplet effects The moon or sun when viewed through CC, AC, thin AS or SC may be surrounded by a diffraction disc, or aureole of light, of varying size and intensity. The aureole is bluish near the sun or moon,and whiter further out with a red/brown periphery. The aureole may be enclosed by rings with blue inner and red outer edges forming a corona. The size of the rings depends on droplet size, smaller droplets produce larger rings. If there is a wide mixture of droplets of varying size then the diffraction rings will be of widely varying size, overlapping each other and blurring into a uniform illumination, leaving only the aureole visible. Cloud irisation or iridescence ( Iris = the Greek rainbow goddess ) appears when a cloud element or streak, usually AC or CC and sometimes lenticularis, is evaporating around its edges so that the droplet size changes quickly over a short angular distance. Also the entire element or small cloud is contained in roughly the same angular distance from the sun. The diffraction pattern traces blue light around the edge of the cloud where the droplets are smallest, and red light where the drops are uniformly larger. The result is iridescent bands — predominantly pinks and blues or greens with pastel shades — appearing along the thinner edges of individual cloud elements. Cloud iridescence is common but the cloud must be within 20° of the sun and thus not readily noticeable. It can occur in thin SC or AS, and also in nacreous clouds. The corona is the diffraction pattern seen in cloud droplets when looking towards the sun. The glory is the diffraction pattern seen in cloud or fog droplets when looking toward the antisolar point. (A glory is the circle of light or aureole around the depiction of the head of a saint, etc.) When flying in sunlight over a cloud layer, the coloured rings of glory may be seen around the antisolar point; i.e. around the aircraft shadow if it is not diffused. The antisolar point is that of the observer, so the luminous coloured halos are centred on the position of the observer's head shadow. As in other diffraction rings, the blue halo is on the inside and the red on the outside. The 'silver lining' that may be seen around the outer edges of heavier clouds, containing larger droplets, is a diffraction effect. Rainbows As a light ray from the sun strikes a small spherical raindrop (drops less than 150 microns diameter are held as a sphere by surface tension, while larger raindrops are distorted by drag into a flattened sphere) some light is reflected by the outer surface. Some light passes through and reaches the opposite inner surface, where a fraction of the light is reflected internally and the rest passes out of the drop. A ray may be reflected only once inside a drop, or many times, but each reflection is accompanied by light leaving the drop, so each internal reflection diminishes the reflected ray. Each spherical raindrop reflects and refracts, in all directions, the light rays that are striking it. However, due to the spherical surface there is a concentration of first reflection rays reflected back towards the sun, around a maximum angle of about 42° to the axis line joining the raindrop and the sun. The red light is refracted less than the other colours and has a concentration at about 42°. The blue light is concentrated at 40° with the other colours in between. The observer will see this concentration of reflected light rays as an intensified coloured light band. This band consists of the first reflection rays from all the raindrops that lie on the surface of a cone, subtended at the observer's eye, with an angular radius of 42° from an axis line drawn from the sun (directly behind the observer) through the observer's head and extended down-sun to the antisolar point; i.e. below the horizon where the shadow of the observer's head might be. This primary rainbow will have the red band on the outer edge. An observer on the Earth's surface sees only an arc of the rainbow circle. When the sun is 40° above the horizon, just the top of the bow can be seen. The rainbow will rise as the sun lowers, until much of the circle can be seen. The lower ends may appear very close to the observer. An airborne observer could possibly see the full circle. Light that is reflected twice within the raindrops has a deviation angle of 51° and produces the weaker secondary rainbow — concentric with and outside the primary, but with the red band on the inner edge. Thus the observer is seeing the concentration of twice reflected rays from all the raindrops that lie on the surface of a 51° cone, at the same time they are seeing the first reflections from the raindrops on the 42° cone. Third and fourth reflection rays would also form rainbows with angular radii of 40° and 46° respectively. These are so weak, and would also form up-sun, so that they are most unlikely to be seen except against a dark cloud. As the first reflection rays from spherical raindrops have a maximum deviation angle of 42°, it follows that all the low-angle reflections coming back to the observer's eye, from all the raindrops enclosed within the 42° cone, will increase the brightness of the sky within the primary bow. Similarly the sky is also brighter outside the secondary bow. The rainbow ends are frequently brighter than the rest of the bow, particularly when the sun is low. This comes from the approximate straight back reflection / refraction in the larger, flatter raindrops added to the reflection / refraction of the smaller, spherical drops. Diffraction interference of light rays ( the waves are out of synchronisation ) produces changes in light intensity, which may appear as a series of light / dark bands within, and close to, the primary rainbow. When rainbow rays pass through very small water droplets (e.g. cloud or fog droplets) they are spread by diffraction, and each colour band is broadened and overlaps adjoining bands. Where all the colours overlap, the result is a white rainbow, cloud bow or fog bow; this is often seen from an aircraft flying over a smooth, extensive cloud layer. Near sunset, a white rainbow may appear as a red rainbow in a low cloud bank. A full moon can produce a rainbow that appears to be white in the low light conditions but, when photographed, is revealed as a normal rainbow. Atmospheric density layer effects When a light ray passes through the atmosphere, where the density changes gradually, the light ray changes direction in a curved path rather than abruptly as when passing through an ice crystal. With changes in atmospheric density, the deviation path curves toward the denser air. Thus when a star is low in the sky, the change in atmospheric density with height, particularly with a cold surface layer under an inversion, causes refraction to bend the light rays so that the star's apparent position is higher than actual and the dispersion may produce a multi-colour image — upper part blue, middle white and lower part red. This gives the impression of an aircraft's lights, and is often reported as strange, moving lights in the sky, as the atmospheric effects make the object appear to jiggle. At sunset or sunrise, refraction can cause the sun's image to appear above the horizon when it is actually below. Small-scale atmospheric temperature and density variations in the line of sight between the observer and a star, or other light-emitting object, produce the twinkling effect scintillation, and the shimmering of distant landscape. Parcels of cooler or warmer air can act as lenses, reducing or increasing the apparent brightness or size of the object. Mirages are optical phenomena produced by refraction of light rays through air layers with large temperature gradients. An inferior mirage (i.e. it appears below its actual position) occurs when the temperature initially decreases rapidly with height. For example, the heat flux from a hot surface, such as tarmac or sand, greatly increases the temperature of the adjacent shallow air layer and consequently the density of that layer decreases (see equation of state). The result is a layer of less dense air underlying denser air, the reverse of the normal lapse rate. Light rays from the sky moving through the layers will be refracted upward in the less dense air (i.e. bent toward the denser air), giving the appearance of a layer of water. When seen from the ground or water, a superior mirage (i.e. it appears above its actual position) occurs when there is a pronounced inversion near the surface, and normally over the sea or a large body of water. A distant object within the inversion layer, even something below the horizon, will appear in the sky above its actual position — possibly totally upside down or the upper portion upside down, but certainly distorted and wavering. For more information google the phrase "superior mirage". An inversion layer of cooler air, with warmer air above and below, acts as a wave guide for light rays introduced into the layer at a small angle to the horizontal. Unless there is a discontinuity in the layer, the trapped rays cannot escape and may be confined within the wave guide for very long distances, following the curvature of the Earth. In such circumstances, a spectacular superior mirage might be seen from an aircraft flying over land within that wave guide. Whit Landvater is a Nevada balloonist who experienced such a display on November 27, 2003 and said "It was like "living inside a Photoshop document while someone was going crazy with the clone tool and filters!" 2.11.3 Moon phases The geometry of the sun–Earth–moon orbits gives rise to the eight commonly recognised moon phases and the associated moonrise/moonset periods.. The elapsed time from one full moon to the next is about 29.5 days. Moon phases and moonrise / moonset periods Phase Appearance Rises Sets New moon Waxing crescent dawn dusk First quarter Waxing gibbous noon midnight Full moon Waning gibbous dusk dawn Last quarter Waning crescent midnight noon STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.10.1 The global electrical circuit The Earth's surface — ocean and solid — and the ionosphere are highly conductive. The atmosphere conducts electricity because of the presence of positive and negative ions plus free electrons. Conductivity is poor near sea level but increases rapidly with height up to the ionosphere; also it is greater at polar latitudes than equatorial. The conductivity near sea level is low because there are fewer ions, and those ions tend to become attached to the larger aerosol particles that are more common near the surface. Refer to section '1.5 Atmospheric moisture'. During fair weather there is an electric potential difference of 250 000 to 500 000 volts between the ionosphere and the Earth's surface, the surface being negative relative to the ionosphere. This gives rise to the fair weather current, which is a steady flow of electrons from the surface at about one microwatt per square metre. The three main generators in the global electrical circuit are the solar wind entering the magnetosphere, the ionospheric wind and thunderstorms. The average CB generates a current of about one amp during its active period. With an estimated 1000 to 2000 thunderstorms continually active around the globe, emitting possibly 5000 lightning strokes per minute, there is an electrical current of 1000 to 2000 amps continually transferring a negative charge to the surface, and an equal and opposite charge to the upper atmosphere. The electrical charge continually flowing into the stratosphere/ionosphere from the CBs maintains the fair weather current flowing to the surface. 2.10.2 Static charge and discharge Apart from the CB clouds, the atmosphere carries a net positive charge and the electric potential increases with height, and in cloud and fog. Strong electrical forces also exist in and around rain showers, which can transfer a charge of either polarity to the surface, or to an aircraft. Static electricity is the imbalance of negative and positive charge. Aircraft accumulate electrical charges in two ways. The most substantial is from flying through the extremely high voltage electrical fields associated with CB, or potential CB development. The static charge can pervade the whole aircraft, internally and externally, and render navaids useless. The rapid discharge of this charge — a single-channel spark discharge rather than a slow bleed-off from the airframe — may happen in any conditions, but the chances are more probable in temperatures between 10 °C and –10 °C, and where flying in rain mixed with snow. The other lesser type is precipitation static. The aircraft charge accumulates from the charge carried by precipitation particles, particularly snow crystals, and separates when the particles break up against the aircraft. Maximum build-up occurs in temperatures a few degrees either side of 0 °C. Static charges imparted to antennae will affect communications, particularly navaids where the effect on signal-to-noise ratio may be considerable. The built-up static charge is usually slowly bled off into the atmosphere, or as a quiet, non-luminous point discharge. In extreme build-ups, the consequent corona discharge streamers or brush discharge are manifested as St Elmo's fire, which is usually not visible in daylight but visible at night as a continuous, luminous blue-green discharge from wing tips, propellers and protuberances. 2.10.3 Lightning The electrostatic structure within CB, or CU CON, is such that pockets of different charge exist throughout the cloud. Generally, the main net positive charge resides on the ice crystals in the upper part of the cloud and the main net negative charge of similar magnitude is centred near the middle or lower part of the cloud at the sub-freezing level. That charge mainly resides on supercooled droplets. A smaller positive charge centre may exist at the bottom of the cloud where temperatures are above freezing. The electrostatic forces of repulsion and attraction induce secondary charge accumulations outside the cloud, a positive region accumulates on the Earth's surface directly below the cloud. Above the cloud, positive ions are transferred away from, and negative ions are transferred toward, the cloud. One favoured theory for the charge separation mechanism is the 'precipitation' theory. This suggests that the disintegration of large raindrops, and the interaction between the smaller cloud particles and the larger precipitation particles in the updrafts and downdrafts, causes the separation of electrical charge — with downward motion of negatively charged cloud and precipitation particles, and upward motion of positively charged cloud particles. Discharge channels Lightning is a flow of current, or discharge, along an ionised channel that equalises the charge difference between two regions of opposite charge; this occurs when the charge potentials exceed the electrical resistance of the intervening air. These discharges can be between the charged regions of the same cloud (intra-cloud), between the cloud and the ground (cloud-to-ground), between separate clouds (cloud-to-cloud) or between the base of a cloud and a charge centre in the atmosphere underneath it (cloud-to-air). The discharge channels, or streamers, propagate themselves through the air by establishing, and maintaining, an avalanche effect of free electrons that ionise atoms in their path. Lightning rates, particularly intra-cloud strokes, increase greatly with increase in the depth of clouds. Cloud-to-cloud and cloud-to-air discharges are rare but tend to be more common in the high-base CB found in the drier areas of Australia. Discharges above the CB anvil into the stratosphere and mesosphere also occur. When intra-cloud lightning — the most common discharge — occurs, it is most often between the upper positive and the middle negative centres. The discharge path is established by a 'stepped leader', the initial lightning streamer that grows in stages and splits into more and more branches, as it moves forward seeking an optimal path between the charge centres. The second, and subsequent, lightning strokes in a composite flash are initiated by 'dart leaders', streamers that generally follow the optimum ionised channel established by the stepped leader. The associated electrical current probably peaks at a few thousand amperes. A distant observer cannot see the streamers but sees a portion of the cloud become luminous, for maybe less than 0.5 seconds, hence 'sheet lightning'. Cloud-to-ground discharges Most cloud-to-ground discharges occur between the main negatively charged region and the surface — initially by a stepped leader from the region, which usually exhibits branching channels as it seeks an optimal path. When the stepped leader makes contact, directly with the surface or with a 'ground streamer' (which is another electrical breakdown initiated from the surface positive charge region and which rises a short distance from the surface), the cloud is short-circuited to ground; to complete each lightning stroke, a 'return streamer', or return stroke, propagates upwards. (The return streamer starts as positive ions that capture the free electrons flowing down the channel and emit photons. The streamer carries more positive ions upward, and their interaction with the free-flowing electrons gives the impression of upwards movement.) The charge on the branches of the stepped leader that have not been grounded flow into the return streamer. Subsequent strokes in the composite flash are initiated by dart leaders, with a return streamer following each contact. The return streamer, lasting 20–40 microseconds, propagates a current-carrying core a few centimetres in diameter with a current density of 1000 amperes per cm² and a total current typically 20 000 amps, but peaks could be much greater. A charged sheath or corona, a few metres in diameter, exists around the core. The stroke sequence of dart leader–return streamer occurs several times in each flash to ground, giving it a flickering appearance. Each stroke draws charge from successively higher regions of the CB and transfers a negative charge to the surface. Return streamers occur only in cloud-to-ground discharges and are so intense because of the Earth's high conductivity. Some rare discharges between cloud and ground are initiated from high surface structures or mountain peaks, by an upward-moving stepped leader and referred to as a ground-to-cloud discharge. Rather rarely an overhanging anvil-to-ground discharge can be triggered by heavy charge accumulation in the anvil, and the high-magnitude strike can move many kilometres from the storm — a 'bolt from the blue', but another reason for recreational pilots to give large storm cells a very wide berth. The temperature of the ionised plasma in the return streamer is at least 30 000 °C and the pressure is greater than 10 atmospheres. This causes supersonic expansion of the channel, which absorbs most of the dissipated energy in the flash. The shock wave lasts for 10–20 microseconds and moves out several hundred metres before decaying into the sound wave — thunder — with maximum energy at about 50 hertz. The shock wave can damage objects in its path. The channel length is typically 5 km. Channel length can be roughly determined by timing the thunder rumble after the initial clap; e.g. a rumble lasting for 10 seconds x 335 m/sec = 3.3 km channel length. When a lightning stroke occurs within 150 m or so, the observer hears the shock wave as a single, high-pitched bang. Effect on aircraft instruments The lightning discharges emit radio waves — atmospherics or 'sferics — at the low end of the AM broadcast band and at TV band 1. These radio waves are the basis for airborne storm mapping instruments such as Stormscope and Strikefinder. The NDB/ADF navigation aids also operate near the low end of the AM band, so that the tremendous radio frequency energy of the storm will divert the radio compass needle. Weather radars map storms from the associated precipitation. Strike effect on aircraft When most aeroplanes, excluding ultralights, are struck by lightning the streamer attaches initially to an extremity such as the nose or wing tip, then reattaches itself to the fuselage at other locations as the aircraft moves through the channel. The current is conducted through the electrically bonded aluminium skin and structures of the aircraft, and exits from an extremity such as the tail. If an ultralight is struck by lightning, the consequences cannot be determined but are likely to be very unpleasant. Ultralights particularly should give all CBs a wide berth; supercells and line squalls should be cleared by 25–30 nm at least. Although a basic level of protection is provided in most light aeroplanes for the airframe, fuel system and engines, there may be damage to wing tips, propellers and navigation lights, and the current has the potential to induce transients into electrical cables or electronic equipment. The other main area of concern is the fuel tanks, lines, vents, filler caps and their supporting structure, where extra design precautions prevent sparking or burn-through. In heavier aircraft, radomes constructed of non-conductive material are at risk. 2.10.4 Red sprites and blue jets When large cloud-to-ground lightning discharges occur below an extensive CB cluster with a spreading stratiform anvil, other discharges are generated above the anvil. These discharges are in the form of flashes of light lasting just a few milliseconds and probably not observable by the untrained, naked eye but readily recorded on low-light video. Red sprites are very large but weak flashes of light emitted by excited nitrogen atoms and equivalent in intensity to a moderate auroral arc. They extend from the anvil to the mesopause at an altitude up to 90 km. The brightest parts exist between 60–75 km, red in colour and with a faint red glow extending above. Blue filaments may appear below the brightest region. Sprites usually occur in clusters that may extend 50 km horizontally. Blue jets are ejected above the CB core and flash upward in narrow cones, which fade out at about 50 km. These optical emissions are not aligned with the local magnetic field. Images and further information are available at the University of Alaska site. 2.10.5 Auroral displays The Aurora Australis is usually only seen from latitudes higher than 60° south but may sometimes be seen from the Australian mainland. The displays, or aurora storms, take place at altitudes of 100–300 km. The auroral glow is caused by an increase in the number of high-energy, charged particles in the solar wind (separated hydrogen protons and electrons) associated with increased solar flare activity. Some of these particles, captured by the magnetosphere, are accelerated along the Earth's open magnetic field lines (which are only open in the polar regions) and penetrate to the inner Van Allen belt, overloading it and causing a discharge of the charged particles into the ionosphere. The discharges extend in narrow belts 20–25° or so from each magnetic pole. The excitation of oxygen and nitrogen atoms by collision with the particles causes them to emit visible radiation — forming moving patches, bands and columns of limited colours. The display colour depends on the gas and the altitude. Oxygen atoms emit a red glow at high levels, orange at medium levels and pale green at low levels. Nitrogen emits blue and violet at high levels and red at low levels. The major forms of auroral display, and typical sequence of appearance, are: glow — a faint glow near the horizon, usually the first indication of an aurora arch — a bow-shaped arc running east to west, usually with a well-defined base and small waves or curls rays — vertical rays or streaks, often signifying the start of an aurora substorm and forming into bands band — a broad, folded curtain moving in waves and curves, and indicating maximum activity is near corona — rays appear to converge near the zenith veil — a weak, even light across a large part of the sky often preceding the end of the display patch — an indistinct nebulous cloud-like area which may appear to pulsate. Extensive auroral displays, which are associated with high sunspot activity, are accompanied by disturbances in radio communications. The period of maximum and minimum intensity of the aurora follows the 11-year sunspot cycle. STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.9.1 Airframe icing High humidity and low winter freezing levels in south-east Australia provide likely conditions for icing at low levels. Hopefully it is unlikely that an ultralight or VFR GA pilot would venture into possible icing conditions, but the pilot of an enclosed cockpit ultralight may be tempted to fly through freezing rain or drizzle. Aircraft cruising in VMC above the freezing level, and then descending through a cloud layer, may pick up ice. The prerequisites for airframe icing are: the aircraft must be flying through visible, supercooled liquid; i.e. cloud, rain or drizzle the airframe temperature, at the point where the liquid strikes the surface, must be zero or sub-zero. The severity of icing is dependent on the supercooled water content, the temperature and the size of the cloud droplets or raindrops. The terms used in the Australian Bureau of Meteorology icing forecasts are: light: less than 0.5 g/m³ of supercooled water in the cloud — no change of course or altitude is considered necessary for an aircraft equipped to handle icing. No ultralight and very few light aircraft are equipped to handle any form of airframe ice moderate: between 0.5 and 1.0 g/m³ — a diversion is desirable but the ice accretion is insufficient to affect safety if anti-icing/de-icing is used; unless the flight is continued for an extended period severe: more than 1.0 g/m³ — a diversion is essential. The ice accretion is continuous and such that de-icing/anti-icing equipment will not control it and the condition is hazardous. The diagram below shows the ice accretion in millimetres on a small probe, for the air miles flown in clouds with a liquid water content varying from 0.2 g/m³ to 1.5 g/m³. The small, supercooled droplets in stratiform cloud tend to instantaneous freezing when disturbed and form rime ice — rough, white ice that appears opaque because of the entrapped air. In the stable conditions usually associated with stratiform cloud, icing will form where the outside air temperature [OAT] is in the range 0 °C to –10 °C. The continuous icing layer is usually 3000 to 4000 feet thick. The larger, supercooled droplets in convective cloud tend to freeze more slowly when disturbed by the aircraft; the droplets spread back over the surface and form glossy clear or glaze ice. Moderate to severe icing may form in unstable air where the OAT is in the range –4 °C to –20 °C. Where temperature is between –20 °C and –40 °C the chances of moderate or severe icing are small except in CB CAL; i.e. newly developed cells. Icing is normally most severe between –4 °C and –7 °C where the concentration of free supercooled droplets is usually at maximum; i.e. the minimum number have turned to ice crystals. Refer to section 3.1 Cloud formation. Mixed rime and clear ice can build into a heavy, rough conglomerate. Flying through snow crystals or snowflakes will not form ice, but may form a line of heavy frosting on the wing leading edge at the point of stagnation, which could increase stalling speed on landing. Flying through wet mushy snow, which is a mixture of snow crystals and supercooled raindrops, will form pack snow on the aircraft. The degree and type of ice formation in cloud genera are: CI, CS and CC; icing is rare but will be light should it occur AC, AS and ST; usually light to moderate rime SC; moderate rime NS; moderate to severe rime, clear ice or mixed ice. As the vertical extent of NS plus AS may be 15 000 or 20 000 feet the tops of the cloud may still contain supercooled droplets at temperatures as low as –25 °C TCU and CB; rime, clear or mixed ice, possibly severe. Freezing rain creates the worst icing conditions, and occurs when the aircraft flies through supercooled rain or drizzle above the freezing level in CU or CB. The rain, striking an airframe at sub-zero temperature, freezes and glaze ice accumulates rapidly — as much as one centimetre per four air miles. Freezing rain or drizzle, occurring in clear air below the cloud base, is the most likely airframe icing condition to be encountered by the VFR or ultralight pilot. As it is unlikely to occur much above 5000 feet amsl, choices for descent are possibly limited. 2.9.2 Effect of airframe ice Ice accretion on the wing leading edge is a major concern for aircraft not equipped with anti-icing or de-icing. Airflow disruption will reduce the maximum lift coefficient attainable by as much as 30–50%, thus raising the stalling speed considerably. Because the aircraft has to fly at a greater angle of attack to maintain lift, the induced drag also increases and the aircraft continues to lose airspeed, making it impossible to sustain altitude if the stall is to be avoided. Fuel consumption will also increase considerably. The weight of 25 mm of ice on a small GA aircraft might be about 30 to 40 kg but the increased weight is usually a lesser problem than the change in weight distribution. Also, accretion is often not symmetrical, which adds to increasing uncontrollability. Forward visibility may be lost as ice forms on the windshield. Icing of the propeller blades reduces thrust and may cause dangerous imbalance. Ice may jam or restrict control and trim surface movement; or may unbalance the control surface and possibly lead to the development of flutter. Communication antennae may be rendered ineffective or even snapped off. Extension of flaps may result in rudder ineffectiveness or even increase the stalling speed. Aircraft operating from high-altitude airfields in freezing conditions may be affected by picking up runway snow or slush, which subsequently forms ice and possibly causes problems such as engine induction icing or frozen brakes. Engine air intake icing Impact icing may occur at the engine air intake filter. If 'alternate air' (which draws air from within the engine cowling) is not selected or is ineffective, power loss will ensue. When air is near freezing, movement of water molecules over an object such as the air filter may sometimes cause instantaneous freezing. Ice may also form on the cowling intakes and cause engine overheating. Pitot or static vent icing Pitot or static vent blockage will seriously affect the ASI, VSI and altimeter, as shown in the table below, but be aware that blockage of the static vent tubing from causes other than icing — water for example — will render the ASI, VSI and altimeter useless, unless the aircraft is fitted with an alternative static source. If the static vent is totally blocked by ice Flight stage Altimeter reading VSI reading ASI reading During climb constant zero under During descent constant zero over During cruise +constant zero OK On take-off constant zero under If the pitot tube is totally blocked Flight stage Altimeter reading VSI reading ASI reading During climb no effect no effect over* During descent no effect no effect under* During cruise no effect no effect constant* On take-off no effect no effect zero* If the pitot tube is partially blocked Flight stage Altimeter reading VSI reading ASI reading During climb constant zero under* During descent constant zero under* During cruise +constant zero under* On take-off constant zero under* 2.9.3 Ice jamming control surfaces and cables Many aircraft are prone to accumulation of water from dew or rain in areas which, if that water freezes during flight, will inhibit control movement and affect hinge, cable or torque tube movement. This particularly applies to ailerons and elevators if the gap between the control surface and main structure contains some form of flexible seal (to improve aerodynamic efficiency) that allows accumulation of water. Engine controls may also be affected if exposed cables or cable runs are wet and subsequently ice up. If water has accumulated within a control surface and frozen before it has the opportunity to drain, then the mass balance of the surface will be degraded and there is a possibility of flutter development. Before flight, water should be removed from areas that may affect controls. Care must be taken to avoid flight into freezing conditions after flying through rain. 2.9.4 Hoar frost obscuring vision on take-off In frosty, still, early morning, winter conditions the air layer adjacent to the ground will be much colder and drier than the air just 10 or 20 feet higher. Pilots planning a post-first light departure in these conditions should be aware that, while on the ground, the airframe will have cooled to freezing point or below. On take-off, the aircraft will quickly rise into the warmer, moister air and it is quite possible, in an unheated cockpit, that atmospheric moisture condensing onto the cold canopy will immediately form an external light, crystalline hoar frost; refer to 'Atmospheric moisture'. The hoar frost will suddenly and completely wipe out vision through the canopy for a short period, and at a most critical time. Under slightly warmer conditions it is possible that a dense internal fogging of the canopy and instrument faces will occur during take-off, which will also wipe out forward vision for a short, but critical, period. If dewpoint is below freezing, hoar frost may be deposited on parked aircraft in clear humid conditions at night when the skin temperature falls below 0 °C. Rime ice will form on parked aircraft in freezing fog. 2.9.5 Carburettor icing Ice is formed in venturi-type and slide-type carburettors in ambient air temperatures ranging from about –10 °C to +30 °C if refrigeration and adiabatic cooling within the airways are sufficient to lower the air/fuel mixture temperature — and consequently the metal of the carburettor — below the freezing point. There must also be sufficient moisture in the air, but this need not be visible moisture. Ice may form at the fuel inlet, around the valve or slide, in the venturi and in curved passages, choking off the engine's air supply. If icing continues, this will cause the engine to stop. Carburettor ice may form in flight or when taxying; the latter event will severely degrade take-off performance. Temperature reduction within the carburettor Adiabatic cooling — in the induction system the constrictions at the throttle valve and choke venturi cause a local increase in air velocity, with consequent increase in dynamic pressure and decrease in static pressure. Density remains constant, so the temperature instantly decreases in line with the decrease in static pressure, refer to section 1.2 Equation of state. This adiabatic cooling is more noticeable when the throttle is closed or partly closed for extended periods, but it is unlikely to be more than a 5 °C drop at the coldest part, and probably much less — say 2 to 3 °C. Refrigeration cooling — when fuel is injected into the airstream a certain amount evaporates. The latent heat for fuel evaporation is taken from the surrounding air and metal, which is already being cooled adiabatically. The temperature drop caused by refrigeration may be as much as 15 °C, giving a total drop within the carburettor as high as 20 °C. If the metal of the carburettor is thus reduced to a temperature at or below freezing then cooled or supercooled water droplets will freeze on contact — as in airframe icing. Sublimation of water vapour Even if there is no visible water in the air, the temperature reduction may cause ice to be deposited on the freezing metal by sublimation of the water vapour in contact with it; refer to sections 1.5 Atmospheric moisture and 1.6 Evaporation and latent heat. The amount forming depends on the absolute humidity of the atmosphere. Normally the higher the temperature, the greater the absolute humidity can be. Thus it is possible that when flying in OAT as high as 20 °C, even 25 °C, carburettor ice can form. Air with a relative humidity of 25% at 20 °C, or 50% at 10 °C, will reach saturation at 0 °C. However, an OAT range of 0 °C to 25 °C, peaking at around 10 °C to 15 °C and with relative humidity exceeding 60%, are the most significant conditions for moderate to severe clear air icing — particularly at low throttle openings — as shown in the probability diagram below. Note that the region to the left of the 100% relative humidity line would be visible moisture — mist, fog and cloud. Locally high absolute humidity may also occur in the following conditions: poor atmospheric visibility at low levels, especially early morning and late evening after heavy rainfall in light wind conditions in clear air just after morning fog has dispersed just below a stratiform cloud base. When flying through visible moisture, cloud patches or light rain, some of this moisture will evaporate in the carburettor, further reducing the temperature in the airstream. The drop is slight but may be enough to tip the scales. The probability of icing is increased if fuel flow is not leaned — the excess fuel injected into the intake airstream increases the refrigeration. Combatting carburettor icing The formation of carburettor ice is indicated by a slow decrease in manifold pressure in aircraft equipped with a constant speed propeller, or a decrease in rpm in fixed-pitch aircraft, probably with ensuing rough running as the ice build-up further restricts the airflow and enriches the mixture. Corrective action is usually by FULL application of carburettor heat, which pre-heats the air entering the carburettor. Full carburettor heat should also be applied in conditions conducive to icing, particularly at low throttle settings such as on descent or taxying, but never on take-off. Carburettor heat will increase the fuel vaporisation in a cold engine. Application of partial heat may cause otherwise harmless ice crystals in the airstream to melt then refreeze on contact with freezing metal. Rough running may increase temporarily after application of full heat, as the less dense air will further enrich an over-rich mixture; however, full heat must be maintained until the engine eventually settles into smooth running. Pre take-off checks: note the rpm and apply full heat — the rpm should drop. Return the heat to the cold position — the rpm should return to the initial reading. If a higher reading is obtained, then icing was — and is — present. Non-venturi carburettors, such as the various slide types attached to two-stroke engines — the throttle slide performs as a throttle valve and venturi — are considered, for various reasons, not to be very susceptible to icing. Consequently, they are usually not fitted for carburettor heat, or intake air heating, on the principle that any ice formed will be immediately downstream of the slide, or multi-hole spray bar, or around the main jet, and movement of the throttle slide will dislodge it. This is provided of course, that the rpm drop is noticed before things get out of hand. STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.8.1 Boundary layer turbulence In meteorology, the term boundary layer is used to describe the lowest layer of the atmosphere in which the influence of surface friction and surface temperature on air motion is important. It is also referred to as the friction layer, planetary boundary layer or the mixed layer and is perhaps 1000 to 5000 feet thick by day and thinning by night. (Under high surface temperature conditions the depth of the layer affected by thermals can be much more extensive; see 'Dry thermals in the superadiabatic layer'.) The term 'surface boundary layer' or surface layer is applied to the thin layer (roughly 50 feet deep) immediately adjacent to the surface (and part of the boundary layer) within which the friction effects are more or less constant throughout, and the effects of daytime heating and night-time cooling are at a maximum. Air flow becomes turbulent when its natural viscosity cannot dampen out pressure forces arising when air flows past obstacles, through temperature gradients or over/around curved boundaries. In the wake of a topographic or constructed obstacle, the average wind speed is reduced but mechanical turbulence is increased. Some of the velocity energy is converted to turbulence energy; thus intense, intermittent gusts and matching lulls can be experienced on the lee side of sentinel hills, ridge lines and mountain ranges. Turbulence may take any form — eddies, vortices, upflow or downflow — and be aligned in any plane. Turbulence increases with the square of the wind speed. Doubling of wind speed will increase pressure forces, and thus turbulence, by a factor of four. Such mechanical turbulence will affect the aoa of an aircraft flying into it, even exceeding the critical aoa. The downward vertical component of eddies and gusts can cause an aircraft to sink rapidly. Such turbulence that occurs when an aircraft is flying near the surface, particularly in take-off and landing, may place the aircraft in a dangerous, possibly irrecoverable, situation. Extract from an RA-Aus accident report: "The pilot took off ... towards a saddle in a range of hills which rise 400–600 feet above the airstrip. While attempting to turn 180 degrees in the lee of the saddle he experienced strong turbulence and sink and was unable to complete the turn before the aircraft collided with the ground." 2.8.2 Low-level wind shear Generally, below 2000 feet agl and over flat terrain, the amount of horizontal and vertical shear, in both direction and speed, is largely dependent on temperature lapse rate conditions: Greater lapse rate » greater instability » greater vertical mixing » more uniformity of flow through layer and less shear. An exception is in extremely turbulent conditions below a cumulonimbus. But if the environment lapse rate exceeds about 3º C per 1000 feet then convective thermal turbulence will be severe. Convective turbulence is minimised in stable conditions, so vertical shear in the boundary layer is enhanced, with highest values in the lower 300 feet. That will affect aircraft taking off and landing. High vertical wind shear values are often attained at the upper boundary of an inversion. An aircraft climbing through the inversion layer, in the same direction as the overlaying wind, would experience a momentary loss of air speed — and lift — through the effect of inertia. Also, the difference in wind velocity between the layers, with shearing instability at the interface, causes the formation of short-lived waves across the interface; much the same way as ocean waves — which grow in amplitude until they curl up and break. The waves produce an extensive but shallow area of moderate to severe clear air turbulence. However, severe low-level wind shear can also be associated with other phenomena; for example, lee eddies, lee waves and solitary waves. 2.8.3 Convection currents Thermals When air flows over a surface heated by solar radiation, the surface contact layer is heated by conduction. If the incoming energy is sufficient, the temperature in the lower layer increases and thermals (upward convection currents) rise from the heated contact layer — perhaps initially as bubbles of buoyant air and then developing into downwind slanted, vertical currents of 50–300 metres diameter. The strength of the thermal depends on the heating and thus on the time of day, being weak in the early morning and strongest in mid to late afternoon. But if the wind builds up, turbulent mixing will disorganise the thermals. Areas of sinking air accompany the thermals, surrounding the weaker thermals and, as the day progresses, extending to fill in the inter-thermal gaps. The thermal cools at about 3° C/1000 feet and if it reaches dewpoint — the convection condensation level — cumulus will form. The release of the latent heat of condensation of the included water vapour warms the air in the thermal, and the rising cumulus convection current increases its buoyancy. If developed enough, it can draw in surrounding moist air and maintain itself as a single, steady, organised updraft or 'pulse', perhaps even forming a towering cumulus or a cumulonimbus. As the thermals grow higher, the spacing between them generally becomes wider, although adjoining thermals may merge at height. Thermals are a principal source of good atmospheric lift for soaring paragliders, hang gliders and sailplanes, and particularly so in the summer. Dry thermals in the superadiabatic layer In the arid inland areas of Australia, the very dry continental air produces generally cloudless skies with little or none of the sun's energy being absorbed as latent heat. Most of that insolation is available to heat the surface, making it far warmer than the adjacent air; ground temperatures of 80° C plus have been recorded. (Conversely, at night both the surface and the adjacent air cool rapidly, by long-wave radiation into space, dropping surface temperatures to near zero.) The daytime heating of air in contact with that heated ground produces a superadiabatic layer where the temperature lapse rate exceeds 3º C per 1000 feet. The layer is particularly unstable, with vigorous, accelerating dry thermals, and associated downflow, which may extend to 15 000 feet or more, above the terrain. Such dry thermal convection is much more powerful than that experienced in Europe where the operating limits for recreational aircraft designed for those environments is established. Powered aeroplanes flying in likely conditions should expect vertical gust shear, often with velocities greater than 20 feet per second — occasionally very much greater — and reduce cruising speed accordingly. Willy-willies A surface eddy flowing into the bottom of a thermal tends to circulate around the central core, which may develop into a vortex stretching up as a spinning column usually for hundreds, but possibly thousands, of feet. A dust devil, dust whirl or willy-willy, 30–50 feet in diameter, is sometimes visible near the surface. Rotation increases as the column elongates. Because of the added vorticity, such thermals are very dangerous to light aircraft taking off, landing or flying at low altitude. The disturbance may not be visible unless it is picking up dust, dry grass or other debris. If you sight dust whirls or disturbed vegetation in the airfield area be prepared for very turbulent conditions. Taxying, parked, even tied-down aircraft, are at risk of considerable damage. In coastal areas, cooler maritime air moving over heated, arid ground also provides conditions for propagation of willy-willies. The worst dust or sand whirls — extending to perhaps 3000 feet or more — occur in the dry, sandy interior, and can cause engine and visibility problems. Encounters of willy-willies in flight usually involve a major upset in attitude and height loss, which should generally be countered using the upset recovery technique outlined in the 'Wind shear and turbulence' module of the 'Decreasing your exposure to risk' guide. 2.8.4 Shear and turbulence near thunderstorms Thunderstorms may be classified in four generalised types — single-cell, isolated multicell cluster, multicell squall line and supercell; although supercells may also be multicellular. Their associated surface winds — originating from the downdraughts of cold, dense air — may be both high velocity and extremely turbulent. Single-cell storms are usually isolated storms moving with the mid-level wind. They are common in summer and occur in conditions where the wind velocity, relative to the cell motion, does not change markedly with height. (CB development has to be strong to overcome the detrimental effects of vertical wind shear). A single-cell storm may last less than 30 minutes, its life being limited to the growth and collapse of a single, large updraught pulse. The diameter of the storm may be less than one nautical mile and it will not move very far during its lifetime — less than 3 nm in light winds. Such storms do not usually produce violent wind shear near the surface, although microbursts may descend from even a mild-looking CB prior to its collapse. Single-cell storms tend to form in the afternoon when convection is stronger. The strong updraughts are very dangerous for hang-glider pilots. Isolated, single-cell storms, embedded in low-level cloud layers, commonly form in cold winter air streams entering the south-west of Western Australia, southern South Australia and Victoria. They are generally frequent but short-lived, with soft hail and shallow wind gusts, and are caused by destabilisation of the cold air mass. They can be accentuated by orographic effects. The passage of vigorous winter-time cold fronts, preceding Antarctic polar maritime air moving into the same areas, are likely to produce the more severe multicell storms. In summer 'cool changes' of unstable maritime air moving into South Australia and Victoria from the west/south-west sometimes produce severe storms. Multicell cluster storms (the most common thunderstorm) consist of a series of organised updraft pulses that may be separated by time and/or distance, and be closely or widely spaced. They move as a single unit and perhaps cycle through strong and weak phases. Frontal, pre-frontal, heat-trough and convergence zone systems may produce very vigorous storms several miles wide. By continually propagating new cells, these last an hour or more before the cold downdraft and outflow finally undercuts and chokes off, or smothers, the warm inflow that produces the updraft, and the system then collapses. Each new cell is usually formed in the 'zone of maximum convergence' where the gust front directly opposes the low-level wind. Weaker multicell storms advance with, or to the left of, the prevailing mid-level wind at an average rate of 10 knots or so; but the strongest storms may turn almost at right angles to the wind. The storm turns towards the flank where the new updrafts are building — the flanking line, which is a line of CU or TCU stepped up to the most active CB. If the new cells are forming on the upwind side, usually to the west or north-west (a back-building storm), it may appear to move slowly, possibly staying in one place for considerable time. Strong updraught/weak downdraught storms often form in conditions where there is moist air at most levels. Such storms produce heavy rain and may produce severe hail but, because of the lack of dry air inflow, severe low-level shear is unlikely. In severe storms, with strong updraughts and downdraughts, updraught velocities increase with height, typically 1500 feet per minute at 5000 feet and 3000 feet per minute at 20 000 feet. Updraughts of 5000 feet per minute in the upper part of a storm are not unusual. Downdraught velocities tend to be slightly less at corresponding altitudes. Vertical acceleration loads of 2–3g may be experienced in horizontal flight. The areas that most concern light aircraft are the low-level outflow regions, where downburst gusts of 50 knots or more may be reached in the initial line squall; also, lightning and hail may exist. The spreading, cold, dense current of the outflow — the gust front — may last for 10 to 30 minutes and be 1500 to 6000 feet deep. This forces the warm, moist, low-level air up and so continuously regenerates the updraught. Thus, an area up to 15–25 nm from a large storm, and 10–20 nm for a medium storm, should be regarded as a 'no-go' area for very light aircraft. An intense, narrow, initial microburst may sometimes be produced, bringing short-lived but potentially disastrous wind gusts of possibly 80 knots. There is an area of extreme, low-level shear at the leading edge of the storm, between the nose of any identifiable shelf cloud and the position the gust front has reached; possibly 1–3 nm ahead of any rain curtain. Vertical wind shear is usually detrimental to early development of CB cells. However, if there is: strong vertical wind shear, backing and strengthening with height, associated with a deep surface layer of warm moist air, below a mid-level layer of dry air, with an inversion separating the layers, and a rapid decrease in temperature with height above the inversion, then the ideal conditions are created for a severe multicell storm; or a supercell storm if the surface wind is greater than 20 knots and the vertical wind shear exceeds about five knots for each 3000 feet. The capping inversion keeps a lid on development until the lifting force builds up sufficiently to burst through the inversion and great buoyancy develops in the colder, upper layer. Upper-level divergence and a jetstream will also enhance the vertical motion. Strong wind shear both tilts the updraught and provides the means to rotate it (storm updraughts usually do not rotate) leading to the development of a supercell storm. A supercell is a severe storm with a strong, continuing, organised main updraft and co-existing strong downdrafts, controlling and directing the inflow (which may have a velocity of 30–50 knots) into the cell from the surrounding atmosphere. It will usually diverge to the left of the prevailing mid-level wind. There may be broad, anti-clockwise rotation — as viewed from below — of the cloud base beneath the main updraught. Humid, rain cooled air from the downdraught may also be pulled into the normal inflow (which is often visible as scud beneath the CB). This causes part of the cloud base to lower, forming a circular wall cloud at the updraught base. If vorticity increases within the cloud, a tornadic funnel may form. A gustnado may form on the leading edge of a gust front under a shelf cloud or similar cloud bank, lasting up to several minutes. The gustnado is a brief, intense downburst vortex indicated by rotating scud. Broad-scale rotation of a storm cell forms a mesocyclone, 1–10 nm in diameter, with a surface pressure drop of a few hPa at the centre; although a 30 hPa drop has been recorded. Supercells may last for several hours as organised systems and commonly form in warm, moist, north/north-east flow into a surface trough, and along the Great Dividing Range during summer. 2.8.5 Convective downbursts The CB downdraft can become concentrated into a downburst — a fast-moving plunge of cold, dense air. Peak wind gusts in the squall* usually last less than ten minutes, often 3 to 5 minutes, but extremely hazardous vertical gust and horizontal shear results, with extreme turbulence at the leading edge or 'gust front'. The downburst may be 'dry' or associated with precipitation ranging from virga* showers to heavy rain showers — 'wet'. The cold outflow wedges under warmer, moister air and pushes it up. A curling outflow foot of dust, tree movement or precipitation from the surface touchdown point may be visible on or near the surface. A shelf cloud often forms above the leading edge as the warmer, moister air condenses. (*In meteorological terms a squall is a wind that rises suddenly, exceeds a velocity of 22 knots and is sustained for a least a minute then dies quickly. Gusts are shorter lived. Virga is precipitation that evaporates before reaching the surface.) Microbursts are a more concentrated downburst form, often associated with warm to hot and relatively dry conditions at low levels, and convectively unstable moist air aloft with high (5000 to 10 000 feet) based CU or TCU. If the cloud is forming when the surface temperature/dewpoint spread is 15 °C to 25 °C then the microburst potential is high. The high spread means the atmosphere can retain much more water vapour. Rain falling in, and from, the cloud is evaporating (virga), thus cooling the entrained air, resulting in downward acceleration of the denser air. Consequently, flight through, under or near precipitation from a large CU involves considerable risk. Significant hail is unlikely. The most dangerous area is the horizontal density current vortex ring close to the touchdown point. The ring moves outward from the contact point at high speed until it disintegrates into several horizontal roll vortices spread around the periphery. The vortices may continue to provide extreme turbulence for several minutes; inflight breakup of aircraft is possible. The maximum horizontal winds occur about 100–200 feet above ground level. Flying directly through the outflow ring would see a 180° reversal in gust direction, and extreme shear. In bushfire conditions the firestorms associated with dry microbursts are particularly dangerous to firefighters. Microbursts occur under only 5–10% of CB but a less concentrated, longer-lasting gust front macroburst is normally associated with the entire cold air outflow of the larger storm cells. The severe gust fronts from a microburst extend for less than 2 nm, while those from a macroburst extend much further. The vertical gusts within the downburst, perhaps with a velocity twice the mean, may produce a microburst within the macroburst. (Unfortunately as a consequence of some high-profile airliner disasters in the USA, probably due to storm downbursts, the 'microburst' term now seems to be applied to all downburst events.) The following is extracted from a report by an RA-Aus pilot who apparently encountered a springtime cluster storm on the southern edges of the Great Dividing Range, north-east of Melbourne, only 13 nm from home, but — fortunately — in a very tough recreational aeroplane. "I had encountered a few small rain showers that lasted 15-20 seconds when all of a sudden I noticed the altimeter going nuts ... the next thing to happen was the Cobra Arrow was lifted and it felt like it was just thrown over end first, I pulled the power and then the fun really started; I was now heading to the ground 2000 feet below at over 160 knots ... inverted and going down quick. I can recall just yelling. I pushed down elevator and commenced a bunt — or the upward half of an inverted loop — then a half roll. That's got it up the right way then I was thrown to the right at the same time dislocating my left shoulder, inverted again and rolled back to upright then to the left and bang in went the shoulder; all the time just flying and waiting for something to give! I managed with good luck and a lot of skill to get out of this situation ... I have done a fair amount of aerobatics and I think it more than saved my life this day. I started to ease the power and flew clear of the main front, leaving the mountains two minutes later in blue skies and sunshine and almost nil wind. The most worrying thing about the whole ordeal was that I had seen a small front about 3 miles to the west. It had actually run past me. I was looking towards home and feeling pretty good but in the mountains anything can happen. The microburst came back up a valley and changed direction almost 180 degrees. I can remember the trees just getting smashed about. I got a real close-up view of them as the back blast of the burst was shoving me upwards. I was only about 200 feet above them. After landing at Coldstream we were able to watch the cell's continuing progress from the ground. It moved around the hills over Healesville then south towards Silvan before coming back around and passing directly over the airfield." 2.8.6 Squall lines The usual precipitation downdraft associated with an individual CB cell tends to be concentrated towards the leading edge of the storm where the cold, heavy outflow spreads out at ground level, forming a small, high-pressure cell 10–15 nm across. The dense air lifts the warmer, moist air in its path and may initiate an extremely dangerous, self-amplifying, convective complex.Within this, neighbouring storm cells consolidate into a towering squall line of large thunderstorm cells ranged across the prevailing wind direction. At locations in the path of the squall line, the resultant line squall occurs as a sharp backing in wind direction, severe gusts, temperature drop, hail or heavy rain and possibly tornadoes. If the squall line is formed in an environment of strong mid-level winds the surface gusts may exceed 50 knots. Squall lines vary in length; some of the longest are those that develop in a pre-frontal trough 50–100 nm ahead of a cold front. These squall lines may be several hundred nautical miles in length and 10–25 nm wide moving at typically 25 knots; their very high altitude anvils extend considerably further. The squall line shown in the adjacent BoM weather radar plot is about 250 nm long. The squall lines form ahead of the front as upper air flow develops waves ahead of the front; downward wave flow inhibits and upward wave flow favours uplift. Squall lines are a common northern Australian feature. They develop along active areas of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, within the feeder bands of tropical storms, along sea breeze fronts or other convergence zones, and in the summer heat trough. In south-east Australia they may also be associated with fast-moving winter cold fronts, producing severe winds and heavy rainfall. During daylight hours the squall line may appear as a wall of advancing cloud with spreading cirrus plumes; the most severe effects will be close to each of the numerous CB cells. The convective complex releases a tremendous amount of latent heat and moisture, which may be sufficient to generate a warm core mesoscale cyclone, and consequent poor flying weather, lasting several days. 2.8.7 Storm avoidance It can be seen that any downburst encounter — whether the vertical gust or the turbulent horizontal outflow — will be deadly to any light aircraft; any thunderstorm activity or potential activity should be given a very wide berth. Stay well away from any storm sighted — perhaps 10 nm for single cells to 25 nm for the largest storms — and never attempt to fly between storm cells. Be prepared to reverse course if it looks doubtful. Never fly under a CB base, and expect that storm cells may be embedded within an otherwise innocuous cloud layer. It is known for hail to fall from an apparently clear sky; this, in fact, originates from the high anvil of a CB many miles away and, of course, a lightning strike will certainly ruin your day. An encounter with heavy rain may produce total loss of visibility combined with a loss in both airspeed and lift. Before any flight, check the online BOM weather watch radar and the area forecasts for storm activity or developing winds. Don't place total faith in the written forecast — check the latest surface chart for the position of pre-frontal zones, convergence zones, developing inland lows, surface troughs, dips in the isobars or other conditions that might indicate possible storm development or increasing winds. Remember that the latter also brings increasing gusts and thus low-level shear and turbulence; 15 minutes spent checking might save 15 weeks repair — for you and/or your aircraft. Check the sky all round at a reasonable height after take-off; if you have any doubts about what you see, scrub the flight! Light aircraft should not be operating in the vicinity of thunderstorms. The following is an extract from an RA-Aus fatal accident investigation report. "The pilot departed Holbrook airfield in a Sapphire aircraft for his private strip about 30 minutes away ... a line of large thunderstorms were active in the area and a witness reported that one of the nearby cells not only had virga visible below the cloud but also exiting horizontally ... the pilot was aware of the approaching weather and, indeed, was trying to beat it home ... the aircraft impacted the ground in a near vertical attitude ... about 100 metres short of the threshold of his strip ... the owner of the adjacent farm on which the aircraft crashed stated that there were thunderstorms within five kilometres and that a wind squall had passed through the area at the precise time the sound of impact was heard." Michael Thompson's storm chasing diary at ozthunder.com/chase/chase.html provides some excellent reports and photographs of storm encounters in eastern Australia. 2.8.8 Tornadoes, landspouts and waterspouts A tornado is a rapidly rotating, narrow air column extending from the updraught base of a CB to the ground. Intense tornadoes usually develop from areas of rotation inside supercells. One theory is that the horizontal vortices produced by the low-level shear are tilted upward by the updraught inflow initiating the rotation within the cell, which develops into a mesocyclone. The vortex — deriving its energy from the latent heat of condensation released from the warm, moist inflow — spins at perhaps 30 knots, accelerating if the column contracts. Another theory is that the tornado forms when a smaller, more rapidly rotating updraught causes part of the storm base to lower — thus forming a rotating wall cloud from which a condensation funnel cloud appears, which may reach the ground. The funnel is usually located on the edge of the storm?s main updraught, close to the downdraught. The tornado diameter at the tip can vary from a few metres to a few hundred metres. Winds at the outer edge may reach 100 knots and there may be a substantial pressure drop within the core, with the magnitude being about 30 hPa per 1000 feet of funnel length. Some 15 to 20 tornadoes are reported annually in south-east and south-west Australia. Their intensity and size is predominantly classified as ?weak and short-lived? (1–3 minutes). They usually move from the north-west at 30 knots or so and damage a strip perhaps 50 metres wide by 2 kilometres long. (In April 1960, though, a tornado in jarrah forest near Collie, Western Australia cut a swathe 240 metres wide and 30 kilometres long, destroying tens of thousands of trees.) Although tornadic storms can occur in any season, day or night, they are often associated with dewpoint temperatures exceeding 10 °C and an inversion at 6000 feet or so. Bushfires may trigger their development. Areas of high incidence are west of the Dividing Range from southern NSW to central Queensland, western Victoria and the south-west corner of Western Australia. A tornado that struck Brisbane in November 1973 produced winds estimated at 135 knots. Also a wind velocity of 90 knots was reported in the fatal tornado at Sandon, Victoria in 1976. Fujita damage scale number for tornadic winds: F0 35–62 knots: light damage (covers Beaufort scale 8 to 11) F1 63–95 knots: moderate damage — caravans overturned, cars pushed off roads. (Beaufort scale 12 starts at 63 knots) F2 96–135 knots: considerable damage — roofs off, large trees uprooted, light missiles F3 136–180 knots: severe damage — house walls off, heavy cars lifted and thrown F4 181–225 knots: devastating damage — well constructed houses levelled, structures blown some distance, large missiles generated F5 226–275 knots: incredible damage — strong timber houses lifted and carried considerable distance to disintegrate, car sized missiles fly in excess of 100 m. Landspouts and fair weather waterspouts develop, from the surface up, in a superadiabatic or similar layer within an environment with little vertical shear. The landspouts and waterspouts tend to develop from low-lying eddies along wind shifts which, in the unstable atmosphere, roll up into vertical vortices about 0.5 nm in diameter. If a vortex happens to get caught in the updraught under a TCU or developing CB then the updraught stretches (and contracts) the vortex, and the tornado-like landspout or waterspout may form. The funnel is usually indicated by dust in a landspout, but the moist sea air will provide a visible condensation funnel, plus a sheath of spray, around a 'fair weather' waterspout. In Australia most waterspouts occur in northern waters. But the world record height of a waterspout, off the New South Wales south coast in 1898, was measured from land by theodolite at 5014 feet, but this was most likely a tornadic waterspout; i.e. a tornado moving out over coastal waters. Multiple or cluster spouts may form in the one location. Photographs and descriptions of tornadoes, gustnadoes and waterspouts observed in south-east Queensland can be viewed in the Brisbane Storm Chasers Web site. 2.8.9 Other pre-frontal turbulence Cold fronts generally travel south of 25° S latitude and west to east. Their passage produces pre-frontal/frontal wind shear, the severity of which increases with the speed of frontal movement and the temperature differential across the front. For example, a front moving at 10 knots with 5° C differential would probably produce only light/moderate shear, while one moving at 30 knots with 10° C differential is likely to produce very severe shear. New South Wales Southerly Buster The NSW Southerly Buster is an intense, pre-frontal squall leading a cold front moving up from the Southern Ocean. It occurs maybe 30 times per year, with about 10 major events usually in spring and summer. The phenomenon is a shallow density current, 20–50 nm wide, centred on the coast and surging northward at 15 knots with 30–60 knot gusts. The temperature may fall 10–15 °C over a few minutes and there may be extreme low-level turbulence. A spectacular roll cloud may form above the nose of any frontal cloud, but usually there is little cloud and consequently little warning. A prime cause of the Southerly Buster is the interaction of a shallow cold front with the blocking mountain range that parallels the coast; frictional differences over land and sea uncouple the flow. Other phenomena lead to intensification of the temperature gradient between the warm air mass and the cold density current; for example, a hot north-westerly or a warm dry foehn wind preceding the squall. Severe thunderstorm activity may result from the forced lifting of warm, humid air. Sea breeze fronts In coastal areas, differential diurnal heating promotes development of on-shore breezes which, during the day, grow in strength to 'moderate breeze' and, due to Coriolis effect, begin to back. The surface wind is a resultant of the sea breeze vector and the gradient wind vector. In hot land conditions, the sea breeze front (a density current) can travel 100–200 nm inland by midnight, if not blocked or diverted by terrain. The cool air lifts the warmer inland air (providing a lift source for gliders) and, if conditions are suitable for deep convection, a squall line may develop and propagate along the convergence line of the surface flow. Opposing sea breeze fronts, such as occur in Cape York, may cause strong convergence disturbances when they meet. Along the eastern Queensland coast, typically between September and March, storm lines of CB up to 100 nm in length form inland in mid- to late-afternoon then move towards the coast, and are out to sea by mid-evening. Such squall lines may be difficult to avoid if encountered unexpectedly. 2.8.10 Low-level jets Low-level jets may form by interaction between anticyclones and mountain barriers — particularly in the area west of the Dividing Range in northern NSW and southern Queensland. This produces a zone in the friction layer, which may extend 50 nm plus, where wind velocity is highly geostrophic and concentrated both vertically and horizontally, so that large, low-level shears are produced. Core speeds of 25–30 knots,and up to 50 knots, occur in an otherwise light surface wind area, particularly early to mid-morning in winter, with the anticyclone centred over the interior. The overnight cooling of the western slopes produces a horizontal temperature gradient. A low-level jet in a circuit area is very dangerous to light aircraft. 2.8.11 Lee wind downflow, eddies, rotors and vortices Pilots of aircraft flying on the lee side of higher topographic features — particularly if taking off or landing, or flying parallel to a ridge — should be aware that the downflow (sinking air) encountered can exceed a powered aircraft's climb capability; there is usually no indication of the downflow other than that sinking feeling! (Of course glider pilots will find atmospheric upflow on the windward side of the ridge providing the opportunity for 'ridge soaring'.) Strong sink conditions may occur on the lee side of mountains, ridges, valley walls, hills and islands, and even extend above the height of the barrier. The severe sink associated with this lee side downflow is a function of wind speed and slope angle. For example, if the horizontal wind speed is 29 knots and the slope angle is 15 degrees then the ambient downslope velocity is about 30 knots [29 / cosine 15° = 29 / 0.97 = 30]. The sink vector is equivalent to sine 15 degrees [15 / 60] = 0.25 x 30 = 7.5 knots or about 750 feet per minute — greater than the maximum climb rate of many ultralights. This downflow airstream may be non-turbulent, particularly when associated with standing wave conditions, so a pilot may not have an early indication of the danger. Turbulent eddies/curl-overs within the downflow may add to the ambient sink rate. The following is an extract from an RA-Aus fatal accident investigation. Note: the Capella aircraft was last sighted in flight over a lightly forested area not far above tree-top height and thought to be intending to land in the grounds of a winery familiar to the pilot. The aircraft impacted the ground almost on the apex of a small rise and about halfway down the slope in a lawn area. Weather was fine with good visibility, and wind was 10 to 15 knot northerly with strong gusts. "Indentations in the ground and damage to the aircraft indicate that the aircraft had initially contacted the ground travelling in a north-westerly direction at a relatively low forward speed but with high downward force. The wind direction and strength combined with the topography at the accident site (a long east-west ridge to the north) would have combined to produce a small standing wave with significant downflow. An aircraft approaching at minimum speed and tree top height could expect significant sink in that area. This could translate to loss of airspeed if the pilot was concentrating solely on touching down on a given spot." Injuries suffered when an aircraft sinks with high vertical decelerations are usually very much more severe than those suffered in horizontal decelerations of similar magnitude. Some pilots have expressed the opinion that a light aircraft cannot get into real trouble in a lee sink situation because the airstream must level out before reaching the surface and so will take the aircraft with it. This is not so; inertia is related to mass and the mass of a molecule of metal is far greater than that of an air molecule. Eddies with large sink rates, possibly greater than 1000 feet per minute — lee wind eddies — may occur, in only moderate wind conditions, on the lee side of mountains, ridges, hills and islands. Sink will be particularly dangerous when accompanied by high temperature (i.e. high density altitude) and high aircraft loading. Airfields along the eastern Australian coastal strip will be influenced by lee downflow and eddies when the westerlies are blowing during August to October. Vortex-like turbulence tends to develop when slope gradients exceed one in three [18°] and it appears at a lower level than the long horizontal vortices associated with lee waves. As the vortices stream downwind, severe turbulence may be encountered at and below the hilltop level and for some distance downstream. Pre-conditions for these streaming or trailing rotors are a stable layer, a wind vector component across the barrier exceeding 20 knots, and this component should decrease considerably not far above the barrier. Horizontal lee eddies can also develop from friction with the mountain side; this normally requires an inversion at or below the mountain top with a strong, sustained wind exceeding 20 knots. The eddies may be visible if cloud forms under the inversion. Wake vortices, similar to those produced from aircraft wingtips, can develop in the lee of lone hills and peaks in strong, sustained wind conditions. The strong — often twin — spiral turbulence can be felt at a distance ten times hill height and at altitudes considerably above and below hill height. In 1966 a BOAC Boeing 707 suffered in-flight breakup in such conditions, while giving passengers a view of Mt Fuji on a cloudless day. A search and rescue aircraft recorded airframe loads of +9g /−4g when flying through the same vortices. Ravine winds can also develop wake vortices. Ravine or gap winds occur in narrow gaps which that part a mountain range. The pressure difference between the two sides of the barrier when moderate to strong wind flows across the range creates a pressure gradient — with consequent strong, turbulent winds in the ravine and flowing from the exit. This also applies to gullies, to some extent. Effect of windbreak eddies Turbulent windbreak eddies will form in the lee of obstacles such as trees adjoining an airstrip. The distance they spread from the windbreak is dependent on the density and height of the trees. Generally, the windbreak affects airflow for a horizontal distance equal to ten times the height of the tree line, if the flow is perpendicular to the windbreak; the more turbulent flow is closest to the trees. There will also be a significant lee-side downflow extending over the windbreak shadow, its vertical component being dependent on the ambient windspeed. Such downflow conditions require that take-off and approach speeds are higher than normal, and that ample clearance is provided — not a place to be low and slow! In addition, in conditions of high solar radiation, the differential heating of airstrip surfaces caused by partial shading can promote turbulent vertical eddies over the take-off area. The following is an extract from an ATSB fatal accident investigation. "The pilot and his passenger were conducting a private flight in the pilot's Jabiru aircraft in the Southport area. Several other pilots heard the pilot advise over the radio that he was conducting a simulated engine failure and glide approach. The aircraft subsequently impacted a steep embankment short of runway 19 at Southport aerodrome and on the extended runway centreline. The embankment was approximately 2 m high, about 210 m from the displaced approach threshold and 30 m short of the sealed runway surface. An examination of the wreckage indicated that the aircraft had impacted the embankment in a moderately nose-high, left wing-low attitude. Damage to the propeller indicated that the engine was delivering significant power at the time of impact. Local procedures required that pilots conduct right circuits when operating on runway 19. Tall trees adjacent to the aerodrome induced localised mechanical turbulence, windshear and downdrafts when the wind was from the southeast. At the time of the accident, the wind was recorded on the Gold Coast Seaway as 150 degrees at 15 knots, gusting to 18 knots. It is likely that the aircraft entered an area of turbulence and high sink rate generated by the prevailing wind over the adjacent trees. Given the evidence of significant power at the time of impact, it is possible that the pilot had initiated a go-around at a stage in the approach from which it was not possible to establish a positive rate of climb." 2.8.12 Mountain waves Mountain waves or lee waves are a manifestation of an internal gravity wave. Such waves occur fairly frequently over, and in the lee of, the mountainous areas of south-eastern Australia, and in the lee of the mountains along the east coast in strong westerly wind flow conditions. Conditions favourable for the formation of strong mountain waves, and which would be provided in the outer fringes of a high pressure system, are: an isothermal layer or inversion at about ridge height, sandwiched between a low-level unstable layer and instability, or low stability, aloft a wind, in excess of 20 knots, crossing a ridge at a high angle and increasing in velocity with height. A sharp change in wind direction within the stable layer and a large amplitude wave may induce stationary vortex or rotor flow. These vortices differ from the streaming rotors formed in lee wind eddies. They are closed with a long horizontal axis; form in the lee of, and parallel to, a well-defined escarpment, and remain fixed in position. Curl-overs may also be produced by friction slowing the near-surface downflow. Usually cloud will not form in the vortex but should it do so, it may range from scraps of scud to a long, solid roll cloud. Turbulence in and under the rotor area, i.e. from the mountain height down, will be severe to very severe. Some evidence of the rotor may be seen on the surface — rising dust, sudden and erratic wind changes, etc. Readers interested in the techniques recommended for flight in such conditions should check www.mountainflying.com If conditions are suitable, lenticular cloud that appears along the crests may reveal the waves; the stationary clouds continuously form and dissipate in the vertical air motion. Vertical movement of 2000 feet per minute is common in lee waves and could be much greater; the vertical component being dependent on wave length and amplitude. Lee wave downflow can easily exceed the climb capability of any powered light aircraft. In suspected lee wave, or potential vortex, conditions it is advisable to clear the lee side of a ridge or escarpment at an altitude well above it and to cross the ridge lines at an oblique angle; never attempt to cross a ridge at 90° when flying into wind in potential lee wave conditions. Wave length tends to increase with stronger wind aloft, and is also affected by temperature and stability conditions. The shorter the wave length, the steeper the ascents and descents. Amplitude depends on airstream plus the shape and size of the ridge. It will be at a maximum within the stable layer, particularly if the layer is shallow with great stability. The larger the amplitude, the further the air moves up and down. Over a plain, the wave effect can continue for 100 nm. The disturbance may extend to the stratosphere. Depending on length and amplitude, mountain waves may produce considerable areas of smooth, laminar uplift and sink — much sought-after by experienced sailplane pilots. Mountain waves are unlikely to break unless the amplitude is high, but if they do break then moderate to severe clear air turbulence will result. A resonating mountain or orographic wave will produce strong, adiabatically warming downslope winds — called foehn in Europe, chinook in the Rocky Mountains area and Canterbury north-wester in New Zealand. In January 1943, a temperature rise of 27 °C (− 20 °C to 7 °C ) was recorded in the space of two minutes in Spearfish, South Dakota. The resonating waves may reach extreme heights and may produce downslope windstorms exceeding 100 knots in the lee of high, extensive mountain barriers. Updrafts and downdrafts in excess of 3000 feet per minute are common; 7000 feet per minute has been reported in the USA. Weak foehn winds occur regularly in the south-east Australian coastal strip under the influence of westerly or north-westerly flows; they can bring unseasonal warming to areas around Lakes Entrance, Victoria, for example. 2.8.13 Valley winds Valleys and gullies tend to develop their own rather turbulent air circulation, somewhat independently of the ambient wind overflow. They have a tendency to flow up or down the valley/gully regardless of the general wind direction. However, if the overflowing wind exceeds 20 knots or so then significant downflow and turbulent eddies may form over the windward slopes of larger valleys, whilst rising air may be experienced over the leeward slopes. Thus aircraft contemplating a 180-degree turn within such a valley should first move over to the leeward side before commencing the turn; if available an appropriate flap setting should be used to allow a slower speed, smaller radius turn. This minimises the risk of encountering turbulent downflow on the windward side. Circulation within valleys may also be modified by solar heating of the valley slopes. Anabatic winds form during the day when hillside slopes are heated more than the valley floor. The differential heating of contact air causes air to flow upslope. Wind speeds of 10 knots or more may be achieved. 2.8.14 Solitary waves Solitary waves — external gravity waves or undular bores — are common in the dry interior of northern Australia, particularly in spring prior to the wet season. They occur as severe, low-level clear air disturbances (a horizontal vortex) accompanied by a transient surface wind squall. When sufficient moisture is present a long, continuously forming roll cloud may appear with base at 500–1000 feet agl and top at 3000–5000 feet agl. Long distance soaring capability is provided by the uplift at the front of solitary waves. The roll cloud (and thus the vortex) may extend for several hundred nautical miles. Because it forms along the wave leading edge updraft and evaporates in the trailing edge downdraft, it appears to roll backwards. The wave may manifest itself as one large amplitude wave closely followed by several smaller diminishing waves. Solitary wave disturbances seem to be generated on an inversion by a disturbance such as late afternoon thunderstorm activity, the collision of opposing sea breeze fronts or the interaction of the northern end of a cold front with a developing nocturnal inversion. The waves, usually a 'family', propagate at a speed of 15–30 knots, relative to the ambient air flow, in a low-level stable layer under an inversion at 1500–2000 feet or so with a deep stable layer above. The neutral layer enables the wave to propagate without being damped and to travel long distances; i.e. the layer acts as a wave guide. The Gulf of Carpentaria Morning Glory is a product of the late-afternoon interaction of the sea breeze fronts on Cape York. The north-easterly sea breeze, aided by the prevailing easterly/south-easterly winds, is more dominant than the westerly sea breeze. The westerly breeze increases the depth of the cooled surface layer and produces a sharp gradient in the low-level wind profile. The surging higher-density air from the north-east collides with the westerly flow. This builds a long ridge of the cooler, denser air protruding into the inversion. The resulting disturbance in the inversion layer, when the convergence collapses at night, produces solitary waves in the boundary layer that propagate to the south-west on the nocturnal inversion. The waves reach the southern Gulf coastline about dawn and provide an amazing soaring ride for sailplane and hang-glider enthusiasts. Similar phenomena occur in other parts of the world but are not as extensive, or as regular, as the Gulf of Carpentaria phenomenon. Photographs of magnificent Gulf of Carpentaria roll clouds can be viewed on the Morning Glory web site. Be sure to view the Gulf of Carpentaria satellite image for 8 October 1992 (8:00 am local time) to see the Morning Glory threaded diagonally right across the Gulf. The occurrence of several roll clouds arriving in the Burketown, Queensland area from the north-east, south-east and south, during the same morning has been recorded. When opposing solitary waves meet, they pass through each other and reform their shape and velocity. If unaccompanied by a roll cloud, solitary waves arrive unannounced, presenting a very severe low-level wind shear and turbulence hazard to aircraft. With suitable surface conditions, aircraft flying at low levels may be warned by a line of raised dust. With the passage of a wave, the closely spaced updrafts and downdrafts may each exceed 2000 feet per minute and the transient wind gusts may vary surface wind by 30 knots or more; not something to fly into head-on, but providing an outstanding ride for the capable pilot. 2.8.15 Aircraft wake vortices Aircraft themselves induce another form of mechanical turbulence. All aeroplanes (and helicopters) develop wake vortices in flight, their size and energy being dependent on both the aircraft's mass and the dimension of the lift coefficient. The latter, of course, is dependent on aoa and wing configuration (i.e. flap and high-lift device settings) so, for any particular aircraft, its wake vortices are greatest at the slowest flight speeds — at rotation for take-off followed by the climb out, plus the approach followed by the flare for landing. The relatively large surface area and the shape of weight-shift trike wings, at high aoa during take-off and landing, generate significant vortices that may trap any following aircraft with a low wing loading. In light winds, the vortices generated by aircraft the size of twin turboprops tend to persist for at least a couple of minutes as they slowly sink a couple of hundred feet below the flight path and, of course, drift with the wind. Gusty wind conditions or contact with the ground will dissipate vortices more rapidly but will spread additional turbulence while doing so. It is often thought that an aircraft encountering the wake vortices from an aircraft of similar size would not be unduly upset; however, this is not so and particularly if the vortex is of higher energy such as that generated by a high lift coefficient STOL aeroplane. Such encounters with relatively small vortices can be very dangerous if there is insufficient height to recover from any consequent uncommanded roll and yaw; and, of course, the upset will increase in severity as the relative mass of the vortex-generating aircraft increases. The most likely points of wake encounter are when turning base to final behind an aircraft landing from a straight-in approach and before touchdown or after lift-off if too close to any aeroplane. Certainly it is wise for light aircraft to anticipate and avoid encounters with the vortices from significantly larger aircraft. The general concept is to follow at least two minutes behind them in take-off or landing, and try to maintain a flight path somewhat above (which may not be possible) and upwind of the preceding aircraft. (In 1994 a Mooney 201 aircraft failed to do that when taking off behind an RAAF Hercules at Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, and ended up as wreckage alongside the runway.) 2.8.16 Clear air turbulence Turbulence above the boundary layer and not directly associated with convective cloud is clear air turbulence [CAT]. CAT is usually associated with regions of strong vertical wind shear and temperature inversions; with jet streams, particularly in convergence/divergence areas; or with internal gravity waves, generated in the lee of mountain regions. The waves may break at various altitudes and distances from origin, generating many patches of CAT. Thus CAT is not just a concern for high-altitude aircraft; it can also adversely affect aircraft flying at comparatively low altitudes. Gravity waves, with consequent turbulence near thunderstorm tops [TNTT], also propagate from the intrusion of strong convective clouds into a stable upper layer. Upper-level turbulent patches vary in length from one to thirty nautical miles and are usually less than 2000 feet deep. Aircraft loads of minus 1g to plus 3g may occur. Upper-level frontal zones form independently of surface fronts in conjunction with jet stream intensification and with strong temperature gradients. The frontal zones are characterised by subsiding dry air and a downfold in the tropopause. Strong wind shear at the zone produces severe CAT. 2.8.17 Effect of heavy rain Flight through rain causes a water film to form over the wings and fuselage; if the rain falls at a rate exceeding perhaps 20 mm per hour, the film over the wings is roughened by the cratering of drop impacts and the formation of waves. The effect, which increases with rainfall rate, is a lowering of the lift coefficient value at all angles of attack, with laminar flow wings being most affected and fabric wings least affected. The stall will occur at a smaller angle of attack; i.e. the stalling speed increases, which is further compounded by the increased weight of the aircraft. The water film will increase drag, and the encounter with falling rain will apply a downward/backward momentum, which may be significant to a light aircraft. Propeller performance is degraded and water ingestion may affect engine output. Thus the rain effect can be hazardous when operating in conditions of low excess aircraft energy — typically when taking off, landing or conducting a go-around. Visibility through a windscreen may be zero in such conditions, so a non IFR-equipped aircraft will be in difficulties. Further reading The online version of CASA's magazine Flight Safety Australia contains some articles relating to microscale meteorological events, which are recommended reading. A categorised index of articles of interest to recreational pilots contained in Flight Safety Australia since 1998 is available on this site. Particularly check the articles in the 'Micrometeorology and weather emergencies' category; there are also relevant articles within the other categories. STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.7.1 Thermal systems Density or gravity currents A density or gravity current is formed whenever denser air intrudes into and displaces less dense air, and (usually) flows across the surface; for example, katabatic winds, convective cloud downbursts and the New South Wales Southerly Buster. Density current motion is dependent on dynamic pressure, hydrostatic pressure and surface friction. These, in turn, are dependent on the height of the intrusion and the relative densities. The flow speed is also a function of the ambient wind flow. Two circulations evolve within the head of a density current, and provide the mass for the mixing billows and eddies. One is below the nose, or point of stagnation (as with an aerofoil), due to surface friction. The other is above the nose where the internal speed is greater than the current propagation speed. The nose tends to repeatedly collapse and reform as the current advances, thereby adding to the turbulence of the squall. A strong, opposing, ambient wind would tend to flatten the nose into a wedge shape. The advancing head of density currents, such as the NSW Southerly Buster, often have no warning cloud associated with them. On the other hand they may produce a spectacular shelf cloud, or arcus, by forcing the warmer inflow air to rise. The leading edge of the shelf may become detached to produce a horizontal cloud tube — a roll cloud. The passage of the leading edge of a density current is marked by a temperature fall, pressure jump and a strong gust-line with large, rotational shear. Other thermal systems include: thunderstorms squall lines tornadoes and sea breeze fronts. 2.7.2 Wave systems Gravity or buoyancy waves Wave motion is the basic mechanism by which local disturbances are transferred from one part of the atmosphere to another without net mass transport. Gravity waves, or buoyancy waves, are pressure waves generated by disturbances within the atmosphere, where the restoring forces (potential energy) for the wave motion are provided by buoyancy and gravity, rather than compression and expansion as in higher-frequency acoustic waves. The kinetic energy is provided by mass; i.e. an air parcel, vertically displaced by a disturbance, will be acted on by gravity because its density differs from its environment. The potential energy of displacement is converted to kinetic energy when buoyancy returns the parcel to its original level. However, kinetic energy reaches a maximum at its original position, so the parcel overshoots that position and again is returned by the restoring force of buoyancy. The air parcel tends to oscillate around its undisturbed position, at a typical frequency of 5–10 minutes. If successive parcels of air are subject to displacement then a gravity wave is generated in the direction of propagation. The source of the disturbance could be orographic effects, frontal lines, density currents, jet streams, convection penetrating a stable layer, squall lines or low level turbulence. Gravity waves can be external waves or internal waves. External waves are those propagating on a discontinuity surface such as an inversion or — in regions where the gradient is strong enough to guide the propagation in a direction perpendicular to the gradient — a solitary wave. Ocean waves are external gravity waves. Internal waves propagate horizontally or obliquely to the density strata. If propagating obliquely they transport energy to the upper atmosphere and produce clear air turbulence. If the layer in which internal waves are produced is bounded above and below by discontinuity surfaces — for example the ground, or density or wind discontinuities — then the upward oblique waves may then be deflected downward, so the waves are then effectively contained within a wave guide. Mountain waves are an example where, depending on the thickness of the layers and the intrusion of the mountain into the airstream, the deflected energy may return in phase with the following primary waves. In this case, the amplitude of the deflected waves adds to the primary wave and the wave grows by resonance. Strong convective cloud punching into a stable layer aloft may generate internal gravity waves and consequent clear air turbulence within the upper layer; e.g. turbulence near thunderstorm tops. Passage of a gravity wave is marked by a pressure jump and a wind change but no change in temperature or humidity, as there is no air mass change. The vertical lifting may initiate cloud and precipitation. Solitary waves are well-known wave systems. 2.7.3 Orographic systems The orographic systems of interest are: Slope and valley winds Low-level jets Lee wind downflow, eddies, rotors and vortices STRICT COPYRIGHT JOHN BRANDON AND RECREATIONAL FLYING (.com)

2.6.1 Geostrophic and cyclostrophic winds Winds exist because of horizontal and vertical pressure gradients, so atmospheric motion can be deduced from isobaric surface charts. In the absence of surface friction, if the horizontal pressure gradient force is exactly balanced in magnitude by Coriolis effect then accelerations of the air will be relatively small and a geostrophic wind (from the Greek 'geo' = earth, strophe = turning ) will flow horizontally at a constant speed that is proportional to the isobaric spacing gradient. The flow will be perpendicular to the two opposing forces and parallel to straight isobars. Air will be accelerated to the extent that these forces are unbalanced. Transitory disturbances and vertical movement will create imbalance. When vertical motion is present the horizontal wind cannot be exactly geostrophic. Geostrophic flow is predominant above the friction layer in very large-scale weather systems, where the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force are nearly equal and opposite; e.g. the Southern Ocean west wind belt. Between 15°S and 15°N latitudes there is little geostrophic flow due to weak Coriolis effect (it being zero at the equator), and winds tend to flow across the isobars. (In which case it is more useful to show wind flow on upper air charts as streamlines. A streamline arrow shows the direction of flow, whereas an isotach is a line along which the speed of flow is constant.) At the other end of the scale in short-lived mesoscale systems, Coriolis has insufficient time to take effect or is relatively weak compared to other forces, so geostrophic balance is not present and air accelerations can be quite large. If atmospheric circulation was always in perfect balance between geostrophic forces and pressure gradient forces, geostrophic winds would flow and there would be no change in pressure systems. In reality the pressure distribution takes the form of curved isobars resulting in a third force — the centripetal acceleration — which pushes the flow inward of the curve. The gradient wind is the equilibrium wind for the three forces — centripetal acceleration, pressure gradient force and Coriolis (or geostrophic). It is roughly aligned with the isobars on the meteorological surface chart. The vector difference between the geostrophic and the gradient winds is the ageostrophic wind. Thus, ageostrophic movement is large for small-scale systems and small for large-scale systems. When the centripetal acceleration becomes the major control of the gradient wind, there is an extremely strong curvature of the airflow and the winds are called cyclostrophic (Greek = circle – turning); for example, tropical cyclones and tornadoes. When a body is moving in a curved path, centripetal force is the radial inward force that constrains the body to move in that curved path and, even at constant speed, there is an inward acceleration resulting from the body's continually changing velocity. (The same applies to an aircraft in a constant-speed level turn.) The equal and opposite centrifugal force that appears to act outward on a body moving in a curved path is a fictitious force, but convenient to show the equilibrium forces for air moving in a cyclonically curved path; e.g. around a surface low pressure system, thus: For the gradient wind to follow cyclonically curved isobars, the pressure gradient force must be slightly stronger than Coriolis to provide the centripetal force. As the magnitude of the Coriolis is directly dependent on wind speed, it follows that the wind speed around a low is less than would be expected from the pressure gradient force and the gradient wind is sub-geostrophic. For air moving in an anticyclonically curved path (e.g. around a high), the opposite occurs, and the Coriolis provides the centripetal force. For the three forces to be in equilibrium, the Coriolis must exceed the pressure gradient force. Consequently, the gradient wind speed must be greater than would be expected from the pressure gradient force — and thus is super-geostrophic. Air moving within a pressure pattern possesses momentum. If the air moves into a different pressure pattern and gradient it will tend to maintain its speed and Coriolis for some time, even though the pressure gradient force has changed. The resultant imbalance will temporarily deflect the airflow across the isobars in the direction of the stronger force — Coriolis or the pressure gradient force. 2.6.2 Effect of surface friction The Earth's surface has a frictional interaction with atmospheric motion that reduces the wind speed and thus the Coriolis effect. The pressure gradient force remains the same, so the wind is deflected towards the region of lower pressure. The friction effect is greatest at the Earth's surface and reduces with height until, at the top of the friction layer or boundary layer, the wind velocity is the gradient wind. This will usually occur somewhere between 1500 feet and 5000 feet above the terrain — much lower over the sea. In this 'spiral layer' the cross-isobar flow is greatest at the surface and decreases with height, while the speed of the flow is least at the surface and increases with height. So, the gradient wind flow tops the boundary layer and, as height within the layer decreases, the wind speed decreases and the wind direction veers* (in the southern hemisphere, backs* in the northern) until the wind velocity at the surface has the maximum cross-isobar component and a much lower speed. Thus, in the presence of surface friction — a force that always acts opposite to wind direction — the veering boundary layer air spirals in towards a low (clockwise rotation) and out from a high (anticlockwise rotation) in the southern hemisphere. *The terms veering and backing originally referred to the shift of surface wind direction with time, but meteorologists now also use the terms when referring to the shift in wind direction with height. Winds shifting anti-clockwise around the compass (e.g. from west to south) are 'backing', while those shifting clockwise (e.g. from south to west) are 'veering'. Velocity change between surface wind and gradient wind Over land, the surface wind speed may be only 30–50% of the gradient wind speed. In the boundary layer, wind slants across the isobars in the direction of the gradient force; i.e. towards the lower pressure. The stability of the boundary layer affects the strength of the friction force; a very stable layer suppresses turbulence and friction is weak, except near the surface. In a superadiabatic layer, convective turbulence is strong and the friction force will also be strong (refer to sections 3.3.2 and 9.1). The following table is for a typical neutrally stable layer, and shows the daytime average angular change in wind direction for an average wind profile over various terrains and beneath a moderately strong gradient wind of 30 knots or so. Typical vertical wind profile Height (feet) Flat country Rolling country Hilly country Wind speed (knots) below 500 +30° +36° +43° 12 500 – 1000 +22° +30° +36° 20 1000 – 2000 +10° +17° +25° 25 2000 – 3000 +2° +5° +10° 28 Within the friction layer the wind is backing as height increases; the change in direction in the first 300 feet is negligible in strong winds but greatest in light winds (below 10 knots) and may be as much as 15–20° if the surface wind is less than 5 knots. The greatest change in wind speed occurs at night and early morning. Also read the 'Wind shear and turbulence' module of the 'Decreasing your exposure to risk' guide. 2.6.3 Calculating low-level geostrophic wind speed The geostrophic wind can be estimated from the isobar spacing on a surface (mean sea level) synoptic chart. The estimation is usually a reasonable approximation of the wind speed around 3000 feet agl over much of Australia. The equation applied is: Geostrophic wind speed (knots) = 3832 G × T / P sine L where G = horizontal pressure gradient in hPa/km T = air temperature in Kelvin units P = msl pressure in hPa L = the latitude in degrees Because the proportion T/P normally doesn't vary greatly at msl, the equation can be simplified to: Geostrophic wind speed (knots) = 2175/D sine L where D = the distance in kilometres between the 2 hPa isobars on the chart. The sine of an angle less than 60° can be estimated easily without reference to tables by using the 1-in-60 rule of thumb; i.e. the sine of an angle is roughly degrees × 0.0167 [or 1/60]; e.g. sine 36°S = 36 × 0.0167= 0.601; or 36/60 = 0.6 The following table is derived from the preceding simplification and shows the estimated wind speed in knots for spacings between the 2 hPa isobars, from 40 to 600 km. If the surface chart shows 4 hPa spacing, then just halve the estimated distance between the isobars and still use the table below. Estimated wind speed from 2 hPa isobar spacings of 40 to 600 km Latitude 40 km 60 km 80 km 100 km 120 km 160 km 200 km 400 km 600 km 10°S 300 210 160 130 110 80 60 30 20 20°S 160 110 80 65 55 40 30 16 10 30°S 110 75 60 45 35 30 25 12 8 40°S 90 60 45 35 30 25 18 10 6 2.6.4 Slope and valley winds Valleys tend to develop their own air circulation, somewhat independent of the ambient wind overflow. They have a tendency to flow up or down the valley regardless of the prevailing wind direction. This circulation is modified by solar heating of the valley slopes. Anabatic winds form during the day when hillside slopes are heated more than the valley floor. The differential heating of contact air causes air to flow upslope. Wind speeds of 10 knots plus may be achieved. Katabatic winds normally form in the evening. They are the result of re-radiative cooling of upper slopes, which lowers the temperature of air in contact with the slope and causes colder, denser air to sink rapidly downslope. In some circumstances, katabatic winds can grow to strong breeze force during the night but cease with morning warming. Anabatic and katabatic winds are usually confined to a layer less than 500 feet deep. However, the turbulence — and the sink — associated with a katabatic wind will adversely affect aircraft. Aircraft flying in a southern Australian valley late in a warm evening should expect the onset of katabatic winds. Katabatic winds are density or gravity currents. They can also occur in the tropics; for example, the Atherton tablelands in northern Queensland form a plateau adjacent to the tropical coast. Winter nocturnal temperatures on the plateau can reduce to near freezing and the cold, dense surface layer air flows downslope onto the warm coastal strip. In some cases katabatic winds can persist for days; an extreme example is the large-scale diurnal katabatic winds flowing from the dome of intensely cold, dense air over the Antarctic ice plateau — average elevation 6500 feet. These winds can achieve sustained speeds exceeding 80 knots, though speeds of 160 knots have been recorded at Commonwealth Bay — the windiest place on earth. 2.6.5 Squalls and gusts Squalls or 'squally winds' are a sudden onset of strong wind lasting at least a minute then dying quickly. Wind speeds exceed 22 knots, and possibly reach 70–90 knots. They may be associated with a thunderstorm (rain squall, snow squall), with a squall line, with a dry outflow from a thunderstorm in the interior (dust squall) or with an intense cyclone where the squall reinforces the strong environment wind. Gusts or 'gusty winds' are onsets of increased wind speed that exceeds the mean wind speed by at least 30% but are shorter-lived than squalls, and often complemented by matching lulls. 2.6.6 Tropical cyclones Tropical cyclones form only in very moist air in ocean regions where surface water temperatures exceed 26 °C. They generally occur between November and April, and in latitudes 5° – 20° South and are prominent features on the synoptic charts. Coriolis effect within 5° of the equator is too weak to develop the initial vorticity and sea surface temperatures are too low at latitudes higher than 20°. To be named as a tropical cyclone (typhoon in South-east Asia) the storm must have sustained wind speeds exceeding 33 knots; if wind speed is less, it is a tropical depression. In the eastern Pacific and the Atlantic the tropical cyclone would be named as a tropical storm for wind speed between 34 and 62 knots, then upgraded to hurricane status when the sustained wind speed exceeds 62 knots; the hurricane is then downgraded back to tropical storm when it weakens. Small tropical depressions (warm-core lows) form on a trough line. Warm-core lows usually become less intense with increasing height but — powered by the latent heat of condensation and if the vertical wind shear is low (below 20 knots) — some become more intense with height. They develop into a tropical storm or a monsoon low, with a very rapid updraught. This may create a cyclostrophic vortex and possibly grow, over two or three days or even less, into a full-scale tropical cyclone, with wind speeds often much greater than 62 knots. A gust of 139 knots was recorded at Mardia, near the Pilbara coast of Western Australia, in February 1975. The pressure drop within the tropical cyclone may be 50 to 100 hPa. (TC Orson produced a msl pressure of 905 hPa at the North Rankin gas platform in April 1989.) The diameter of the vortex may be 400 km, with a central eye 20–40 km in diameter surrounded by spiral feeder bands of CB cloud reaching the tropopause. The dry air in the eye usually descends slowly and warms adiabatically; near the surface it may be 5–8 °C warmer than the surrounding cooled air. The enormous energy within a large tropical cyclone can result in a local lifting of the tropopause; the Atlantic hurricane Bonnie of August 1998 produced chimney clouds reaching 59 000 feet. The tropical cyclones affecting Australia mainly form in the Coral Sea, Arafura Sea, Timor Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. They are usually more compact, but no less severe, than their counterparts elsewhere. While developing, the cyclone usually drifts to the west or south-west at about 10 knots. Sometimes it recurves and accelerates to the south-east and, unless it crosses a coastline, loses its impact by 30° S. They last about six to 10 days (although TC Justin persisted for three weeks off the Queensland coast in 1997. When a cyclone crosses a coast it loses the source of latent heat from the warm, moist ocean air, and weakens into a rain depression, which has high potential for major flooding. About nine tropical cyclones occur around Australia each year. Wind speeds felt at the surface in the south-west quadrant, before recurving, will be much greater than those in the north-east quadrant, due to the addition or subtraction of the forward movement to the rotational movement. Wind speeds of 148 knots, with a core pressure of 877 hPa, have been recorded in Pacific Ocean tropical cyclones. Monsoon lows are a feature of the active period of the northern Australian wet season. They develop over land from tropical depressions but don't grow into a tropical cyclone unless they move offshore. Monsoon lows bring turbulence, low cloud and heavy rain with reduced visibility over an extensive area for a considerable time; as does a tropical cyclone when it weakens into a rain depression. Further information concerning tropical cyclones can be found at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology's tropical cyclone page. Tropical cyclone categories The Australian Bureau of Meteorology defines cyclone intensity in its area of responsibility, 90°E to 160°E, from category 1 to category 5, according to the expected strongest gust, as below: 1 below 69 knots Negligible damage to houses. Damage to crops, trees and caravans 2 69 to 92 Minor house damage, significant damage to trees and caravans. Heavy damage to crops 3 93 to 120 Roof and structural damage. Power failure likely 4 121 to 150 Caravans blown away. Dangerous airborne debris 5 above 150 knots Extremely dangerous with widespread destruction Cyclone Tracy, which wrecked Darwin (24/12/1974) was category 4, but the highest recorded gust in the city was 117 knots. Cyclone Vance (22/3/99) was category 5. The Saffir-Simpson scale, however, is used in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific for categorising hurricane intensity: Saffir-Simpson scale Class Central pressure Max. 1 minute sustained speed Damage potential Tropical depression below 33 knots nil Tropical storm 33 – 62 minimal Hurricane cat.1 above 980 mb 63 – 83 minimal Hurricane cat.2 965 – 980 84 – 96 moderate Hurricane cat.3 945 – 965 97 – 113 extensive Hurricane cat.4 921 – 945 114 – 135 extreme Hurricane cat.5 below 921 over 135 knots catastrophic 2.6.7 Determining wind velocity During pre-flight planning, pilots determine the forecast wind velocities, at various cruising levels and at aerodromes along their route, by reference to forecast information provided by an authority such as the Australian Bureau of Meteorology or Airservices Australia. Meteorological forecast information for an area [an ARFOR] can be obtained from Airservices Australia's NAIPS Internet Service. See Obtaining weather forecasts, NOTAM, first light and last light. The real-time weather observations, at about 190 airfields, can be obtained by telephoning the Australian Bureau of Meteorology automatic weather station at the location and listening to the audio data. See AWIS in the VHF radiocommunications guide. As the flight progresses, the navigation techniques employed enable calculation of the actual wind velocity at cruising level. While airborne, a radio-equipped aircraft can usually obtain a report of actual weather conditions at the larger aerodromes; see 'Acquiring weather and other information in-flight' in the VHF radiocommunications guide. If a mobile phone is carried, the AWIS (if available) can be used to obtain surface wind and some other weather data. However, surface wind velocity at smaller airfields can be estimated from the probable wind profile knowing the upper level velocity — see 'Effect of surface friction' above — or determined by observation. Determining surface wind direction visually while airborne Apart from an airfield windsock, the most obvious indicators of surface wind direction are dust from agricultural operations or moving vehicles and smoke from chimneys or smaller fires. Wind ripples in grassland, crops or tree tops provide a reasonable indication in light to moderate winds, as does wave movement on small to larger lakes. In lighter winds the wind shadow of still water, at the upwind edge of a small lake or dam, is usually apparent. And, of course, when the aircraft is flying at a lower level the aircraft's drift is a strong indicator of the near-surface winds. The Beaufort wind speed scale (land) No. Wind speed Gust speed Meteorological classification Terms used in general forecast Wind effect on land 0 <1 knot calm calm Smoke rises vertically 1 1 – 3 light air light winds Smoke drifts 2 4 – 6 light breeze light winds Leaves rustle, water ripples; '15 knot' dry windsock tail drooping 45° or so 3 7 – 10 gentle breeze light winds Wind felt, leaves in constant motion, smooth wavelets form on farm dams and small lakes, smoke rises at an angle above 30°; '15 knot' dry windsock tail 15° or so below horizontal 4 11 – 16 moderate breeze moderate wind Small branches move, dust blown into air, crested wavelets form 5 17 – 21 fresh breeze fresh wind Small trees sway, smoke from small fires blown horizontally; '15 knot' dry windsock horizontal 6 22 – 27 strong breeze strong wind Large branches sway, whistling in wires 7 28 – 33 near gale strong wind Whole trees in motion 8 34 – 40 43 - 51 fresh gale gale wind Twigs break off, difficulty in walking 9 41 – 47 52 - 60 strong gale severe gale Some building damage 10 48 – 56 61 - 68 whole gale storm Trees down 11 57 – 62 69 - 77 storm violent storm Widespread damage 12 63 + 78 + tropical cyclone tropical cyclone Severe extensive damage The Beaufort wind speed scale (sea — and perhaps large lakes) 0 – Sea is mirror-like 1 – Ripples present but without foam crests 2 – Small wavelets, glassy appearance and do not break 3 – Large wavelets, crests begin to break, with scattered white horses 4 – Small waves becoming longer, fairly frequent white horses 5 – Moderate waves, many white horses with chance of spray 6 – Large waves are forming with extensive white foam crests, spray probable 7 – The sea heaps up, white foam from breaking waves is blown in streaks 8 – The edges of crests break into spindrift with well marked, foam streak lines 9 – High waves with tumbling crests and spray, dense foam streaks 10 – Very high waves with overhanging crests, surface appearance white, visibility affected 11 – Chaotic sea, large parts of waves blown into spume with foam everywhere 12 – Air filled with foam and spray, visibility severely impaired State of seas classification The following table is the state of seas classification, with likely maximum wave height in metres, used in general meteorology reports and warnings for Australian coastal waters: Calm zero No waves Rippled 0.1 m No waves breaking on beach Smooth 0.5 m Small breaking waves on beach Slight 1.3 m Waves rock buoys and small boats Moderate 2.5 m Sea becoming furrowed Rough 4 m Sea deeply furrowed Very rough 6 m Disturbed sea with steep-faced rollers High 9 m Very disturbed sea with steep-faced rollers Very high 14 m Towering seas Phenomenal >14 m Hurricane seas State of swell classification The following table is the state of swell classifications used for reporting the wave-train height and length: Swell height Swell length Low swell 0 - 2 m Short 0 – 100 m Moderate 2 - 4 m Average 100 – 200 m Heavy >4 m Long >200 m The length and speed of the wave-train can be calculated readily if the period (in seconds) is measured; i.e. the length in metres is 1.56 × the period squared and the speed in knots is 3.1 × the period. e.g. if period = 10 seconds, then train lengths = 156 metres and propagation speed = 31 knots 2.6.8 The compass rose and the wind rose In nautical terms there are 32 compass 'points' each division being 11.25° of azimuth. Winds shifting anticlockwise around the compass rose are 'backing', those shifting clockwise are 'veering'. The names of the compass points and the associated compass direction in degrees are shown in the following table. The term 'by' indicates plus or minus one point (11.25°) in the stated direction; e.g. 'nor'east by north' indicates north-east (45°) minus 11.25° = 33.75°. Compass rose points 11.25 North by (one point) east 191.25 South by (one point) west 22.50 Nor'nor east 202.50 Sou'sou'west 33.75 Nor'east by north 213.75 Sou'west by south 45.00 North east 225.00 South west 56.25 Nor'east by east 236.25 Sou'west by west 7.50 East nor'east 247.50 West sou'west 78.75 East by north 258.75 West by south 90.00 East 270.00 West 101.25 East by south 281.25 West by north 112.50 East sou'east 292.50 West nor'west 123.75 Sou'east by east 303.75 Nor'west by west 135.00 South east 315.00 North west 146.25 Sou'east by south 326.25 Nor'west by north 157.50 Sou'sou'east 337.50 Nor'nor'west 168.75 South by east 348.75 North by west 180.00 South 360.00 North The wind rose The term 'wind rose' nowadays applies to the diagram meteorologists use to represent the wind velocity statistical data collected for a particular location. To view the wind rose for a specific location in Australia, go to the Bureau of Meteorology's wind rose page. 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